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UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


THE  ADJUSTMENT  OF  A  SCHOOL  TO 
INDIVIDUAL  AND  COM- 
MUNITY NEEDS 


BY 

PHILIP  ALBERT  BOYER 


A  THESIS 

PBESENTED     TO     THE     FACULTY    OP    THE    GRADUATE    SCHOOL    IN 

PARTLUi     FULFILLMENT     OP     THE     REQUIREMENTS     FOR 

THE   DEGREE    OF   DOCTOR   OP  PHILOSOPHY 


PHILADELPHLA.,  PA. 
1920 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


THE  ADJUSTMENT  OF  A  SCHOOL  TO 
INDIVIDUAL  AND  COM- 
MUNITY NEEDS 


BY 

PHILIP  ALBERT  BOYER 


A  THESIS 

PRESENTED    TO    THE    FACULTY     OF    THE     GRADUATE     SCHOOL    IN 

PARTIAL     FULFILLMENT     OF     THE     REQUIREMENTS     FOR 

THE    DEGREE    OF    DOCTOR    OF   PHILOSOPHY 


PHILADELPHIA,   PA. 
1920 


<*XCHANQE 


PRESS  OF 

Intelligencer  PRiNTiNa  Co. 
Lancaster,  Pa. 


o 


INTRODUCTION 

This  study  represents  an  attempt  to  apply  to  the  organiza- 
tion and  management  of  a  school  the  principles  of  efficiency 
underlying  scientific  management  in  industry.  The  school 
under  consideration,  the  Stanton- Arthur,*  comprises  the  kinder- 
garten and  the  eight  elementary  grades,  and  constitutes  a  unit 
school  organization  in  the  large  public  school  system  of  the 
city  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Consideration  of  the  aims  and  meth- 
ods of  this  unit  school  in  the  light  of  the  aim  of  education  and 
the  efficiency  principles  reveals  the  necessity  of  modifications 
for  detailed  adjustment  to  the  peculiar  conditions  surrounding 
the  school. 

In  Chapters  II  and  III  both  external  and  internal  conditions, 
which  tend  in  any  way  to  influence  or  circumscribe  the  work 
of  the  school,  are  analyzed  in  some  detail.  Social,  economic, 
legal,  financial  and  administrative  conditions,  having  been 
definitely  ascertained,  are  accepted  as  standard,  and,  together 
with  conditions  internal  to  the  particular  school  and  its  pupils, 
are  taken  into  account  in  shaping  the  aims,  organization  and 
operations  of  the  school.  The  external  standard  conditions  are 
further  limited,  for  the  present  at  least,  by  conditions  internal 
to  the  school  system,  such  as  inadequate  plant  and  equipment, 
the  absence  of  efficiency  reward  for  teachers,  and  insufficient 
provision  for  the  most  complete  adjustment  of  content  and 
method  to  the  varying  individual  needs  of  pupils. 

Chapter  IV  comprises  a  study  of  the  attainments  of  pupils 
so  far  as  these  may  be  determined  by  the  use  of  standardized 
educational  and  psychological  tests.  Results  reflect  adverse 
conditions  in  many  ways,  and  indicate  the  necessity  of  final 
adjustment  of  aims,  methods  and  standardized  attainments 
in  order  to  secure  a  closer  approximation  to  the  achievement 
of  the  aim  of  education  in  each  pupil. 

In  Chapter  V  both  ideal  aims  and  standard  conditions  are 
brought  together  in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest  specific  working 
aims,  best  adapted  under  the  existing  conditions  to  secure  the 


*  Formed  in  1918  by  combining  under  one  supervising  principal  the  Ed- 
win M.  Stanton  School  and  the  Chester  A.  Arthur  School. 


"^52194 


4  School  Adjustment 

closest  possible  approximation  to  the  most  complete  realiza- 
tion of  the  ideal  aim. 

Chapter  VI  outlines  the  modifications  in  present  practice 
in  the  management  of  the  school,  possible  under  the  existing 
conditions,  and  suggested  by  the  application  of  the  principles 
of  efficiency.  In  so  far  as  these  adjustments  are  limited  by 
the  existing  standard  conditions,  they  are  not  ideal,  but  rep- 
resent the  most  efficient  adjustment  of  aims,  conditions  and 
attainments. 

The  final  chapter  proposes  specific  improvements  in  condi- 
tions and  indicates  the  resulting  possibility  of  the  more  com- 
plete realization  of  the  aims  of  the  school  under  the  newly 
established  standard  conditions. 

The  basic  idea  and  plan  of  the  present  study  is  the  outgrowth 
of  a  course  in  the  theory  of  educational  administration  given 
by  Dr.  Harlan  Updegraff  in  the  graduate  school  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  Through  his  untiring  interest,  con- 
structive criticism,  sympathetic  guidance  and  stimulation.  Dr. 
Updegraff  has  sustained  the  author  throughout  the  planning 
and  preparation  of  the  work.  Acknowledgment  is  also  due 
to  the  members  of  the  Seminar  in  Educational  Administration 
for  their  interest  and  criticism,  and  to  Dr.  Oliver  P.  Cornman, 
Mr.  Samuel  L  Chew  and  Mr.  John  Christopher,  of  the  De- 
partment of  Superintendence  of  the  Philadelphia  Public  Schools, 
for  constructive  criticism  of  the  manuscript.  It  would  be 
ingratitude,  indeed,  to  neglect  appreciative  mention  of  my 
wife,  Gertrude  Stone  Boyer,  whose  ever  willing  helpfulness 
has  made  this  study  possible. 

P.  A.  B. 


CONTENTS 

Introduction 3 

Chapter  I — Aims  and  Their  Realization: 

Principles  of  efficiency  in  industry 9 

Application  of  efficiency  principles  to  education 12 

The  aim  of  education 13 

The  aim  of  a  public  school 13 

Efficiency  standards 14 

Interaction  of  aims  and  conditions 15 

Working  aims 16 

Summary 16 

Chapter  II — Standard  Conditions: 

Conditions  shape  school  policy 18 

Composition  of  the  population  of  the  school's  community 19 

Increase  in  proportion  of  negroes  to  total  population 20 

Racial  composition  of  school  pupilage 21 

Increasing  proportion  of  negro  children 22 

Excess  of  females  in  negro  population 23 

High  proportion  of  young  people  in  cities 24 

Unstable  marital  condition 25 

Illiteracy 27 

Shifting  population 28 

Congested  and  unsanitary  housing 29 

The  lodger  evil 29 

Proportion  of  negroes  gainfully  employed 29 

Degree  of  skill  of  occupations 30 

Employed  mothers 31 

Pupils  working  after  school  hours 32 

Disregard  for  health 32 

Disrupted  home  life 33 

Racial  traits 34 

Mentality  of  negro  and  white 35 

The  white  population 36 

Legal,  financial  and  administrative  conditions ^  37 

Comparative  expenditure  for  schools  (Philadelphia  among  the  ten 

largest  cities  of  U.  S.) 37 

Increased  expenditure  for  full  efficiency 40 

Physical  conditions — the  school  plant 40 

Summary 41 

Chapter  III — School  Pdpilage: 

Sources  of  pupilage 44 

Grades  at  which  pupils  enter  the  school 45 

5 


6  School  Adjustments 

School  census 45 

Proportion  of  children  attending  Stanton-Arthur  School,  other  pub- 
lic schools  and  parochial  schools 46 

Pupil  turn-over 49 

New  admissions  from  the  South 50 

Attendance 51 

Enforcement  of  regular  attendance 51 

Effects  of  absence 53 

Age-grade  statistics  (city  and  school,  1917) 54 

Age-grade  and  age-progress  statistics,   1918 57 

Pupils  of  incomplete  record 70 

Mentally  subnormal  pupils 71 

Promotion  rates 73 

Large-group  instruction  and  adjustment  to  needs 74 

Summary 76 

Chapter  IV — Standard  Attainments: 

Courtis  standard  tests  in  arithmetic — Series  B 78 

Monroe  standardized  reasoning  tests  in  arithmetic 83 

Monroe  standardized  silent  reading  tests 85 

Trabue  language  scale — B 88 

Ayres  spelling  scale — Group  T 89 

Thorndike  air  service  intelligence  tests 91 

Summary 93 

Chapter  V — The  Working  Aims  of  a  Unit  School: 

1.  General  Aims  of  Education: 

(a)  Objective  aspect 94 

(b)  Subjective  aspect 94 

2.  Distinguishing  Characteristics  of  the  School's  Community: 

(a)  Social 96 

(b)  Economic 96 

(c)  Intellectual 97 

3.  Working  Aims  of  the  School  to  Stress: 

(a)  Moral  character 99 

(b)  Health 99 

(c)  Home  life 100 

(d)  Cooperation  with  other  social  agencies 100 

(e)  Vocational  efficiency 100 

(f)  Minimum  essentials 101 

Summary 103 

Chapter  VI — Achievement  of  Immediate  Objectives  Under  Pres- 
ent Standard  Conditions: 

Limitations  of  finance,  plant,  equipment,  personnel,  organization. . .  104 

Adjustments  possible  under  existing  conditions 105 


Contents  7 

Grades  1-6 

1.  Opportunity  class  as  a  type  of  adjustment 106 

2.  Special  ungraded  classes  for: 

(a)  Mental  defectives 108 

(b)  Mal-adjust meats  (not  to  be  restored  to  regular  classes) 108 

(c)  Exceptional  pupils  of  three  types: 

1.  Mal-adjusted  pupils  to  be  restored  to  regular  classes —    109 

2.  Cases  of  special  ability 109 

3.  Cases  requiring  special  attention  for  rapid  advancement  109 

(d)  Instruction  in  manual  arts: 

Pre- vocational  work  for  those  about  to  leave  school 109 

Manual  Arts  and  Home  Economics  for  pupils  of  Grades  5 

and  6 109 

3.  Flexibility  of  grading : 

(a)  Homogeneous  grouping Ill 

(b)  Varying  rates  of  progress HI 

(c)  Maximum  and  minimum  requirements 112 

(d)  Differentiated  minima 112 

4.  Definite  working  aims: 

(a)  For  small  groups  of  pupils 112 

(b)  For  individuals 113 

5.  Selection  and  emphasis  in  courses  of  study 114 

Grades  7  and  8 

6.  General  course  modifications 116 

7.  Pre-vocational  training 117 

8.  Promotion  by  subject 119 

9.  Individual  pupil  roster 119 

General 

10.  Health 119 

11.  Moral  development 120 

12.  Home  and  community  cooperation 1 20 

Summary 121 

Chapter  VII — Reorganization  on  the  Basis  of  Improved  Standard 
Conditions: 

1.  Financial  conditions: 

(a)  Expenses  of  conducting  Stanton-Arthur  School — 1918 123 

(b)  Budget  for  current  expenses — 1921 124 

2.  Physical  conditions: 

(a)  Arthur  School: 

Outlays  for  (1)  acquisition  of  adequate  yard  space 125 

(2)  alterations 125 

(3)  additional   equipment   for   special   classes 
and  first  grade  classrooms 125 

(b)  Stanton  School  replaced  by  modern  building: 


School  Adjustment 

(a)  Plan  and  cost  of  building 125 

(b)  Land 128 

(c)  Equipment 128 

3.  Curriculum: 

Grades    1-3 — Habit   formation:     introduction    to    "tools"    of 

learning 129 

Grades  4-6 — Habit  formation:  learning  technique 129 

Grades  7-8 — Educational  guidance — constants  and  variables. . .  130 
Academic,  business,  practical  arts  and  vocational 

courses 130 

4.  Organization: 

Grades  1-3 — Individual  room  and  teacher  assignments  for  each 

class 132 

4-6 — The  duplicate  school 133 

7-8 — Departmental  plan 136 

Pupil,  teacher  and  room  assignments 134 

5.  Supervision: 

Supervising  principal 136 

Assistant  supervisor 137 

6.  Personnel: 

Increase  in  teaching  corps 137 

Academic  teachers 137 

Special  class  teachers 137 

Teachers  for  special  subjects  and  activities 137 

Increased  salaries 138 

Efficiency  reward 138 

7.  A  community  school: 

Visiting  teacher 1 38 

Evening  use  (instruction,  recreation,  social  and  civic  activities)  139 

Vacation  school 139 

Reciprocal  influence  of  school  and  community 139 

8.  Conclusion 140 


CHAPTER  I 

AIMS  AND  THEIR  REALIZATION 
Efficiency  Principles 

Scientific  management  based  upon  carefully  tested  principles 
of  efficiency  has  within  recent  years  effected  vast  improvements 
in  the  organization  and  methods  of  industrial  enterprise.  The 
appHcation  of  these  principles  has  discovered  and  eliminated 
sources  of  waste  in  men,  money,  materials,  equipment  and 
operation.  Immediate  satisfaction  to  all  concerned  as  well  as 
increased  financial  reward  has  caused  rapid  spread  of  the  doc- 
trine of  efficiency  until  today  every  large  progressive  industrial 
establishment  has  its  department  of  efficiency  to  study  condi- 
tions, organization,  operations,  schedules,  despatching,  to  make 
recommendations  for  improvement  and  to  test  their  effective- 
ness in  operation. 

The  doctrine  of  efficiency  in  industry  has  been  reduced  to  a 
code  of  twelve  principles  upon  which  to  base  rules  of  practice 
by  Harrington  Emerson  in  his  book  "The  Twelve  Principles 
of  Efficiency."*  "Five  of  these  are  altruistic  and  concern 
relations  between  men — or,  in  the  industrial  problem,  specific- 
ally between  employer  and  employee.  Seven  of  them  concern 
methods  or  institutions  and  systems  established  in  the  manu- 
facturing plant  or  in  the  operating  and  distributing  company." 
Since  these  principles  form  the  background  of  the  present  study 
they  are  reproduced  here  in  brief: 

1.  Clearly  Defined  Ideals.  Workers  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
line  should  have  a  clear  concept  of  the  relation  of  their  specific 
tasks  to  all  others,  and  to  the  final  definitely  understood  pur- 
pose. "Lacking  this  full  understanding  of  ideals  and  their 
significance,  workers  are  often  driven  to  create  minor  ideals  of 
their  own  which  frequently  are  at  variance  with  the  ideals  of 
those  above  them.  If  all  the  ideals  animating  all  the  organi- 
zation from  top  to  bottom  could  be  lined  up  so  as  to  pull  in  the 
same  straight  line,  the  resultant  would  be  a  very  powerful  effort; 
but  when  these  ideals  pull  in  diverse  directions,  the  resultant 


*  Engineering  Magazine  Company,  4th  edition,  1910. 

9 


10  School  Adjustment 

force  may  be  insignificantly    positive — may,  in  fact,  be  nega- 
tive." 

2.  Common  Sense.  All  possible  theoretical  and  practical 
knowledge  and  experience  should  be  considered.  "It  is  im- 
possible to  lay  down  rules  or  to  give  specific  directions  as  to 
how  we  shall  convert  prejudice  and  ignorance  from  without, 
near  common  sense  from  within,  into  supernal  common  sense. 
To  select  an  upbuilding  constructive  organization,  carefully  to 
determine  and  adhere  to  ideals,  constantly  to  survey  every 
problem  from  a  lofty  instead  of  a  near  point  of  view,  to  seek 
special  knowledge  and  advice  wherever  they  can  be  found,  to 
maintain  from  top  to  bottom  a  noble  discipUne,  to  build  on  the 
rock  of  the  golden  rule,  of  the  fair  deal — these  are  the  general 
problems  which  supernal  common  sense  must  immediately 
solve." 

3.  Competent  Counsel.  Best  practice  depends  on  so  vast  a 
range  of  experience  that  no  one  man  can  be  master  of  it  all. 
Hence,  in  a  perfected  organization,  specialists  set  forth  the 
underlying  principles,  instruct  as  to  their  application  and  re- 
lentlessly reveal  both  their  observance  and  neglect. 

4  Discipline.  "Under  the  best  management  there  are- 
scarcely  any  rules  and  there  are  fewer  punishments.  There 
are  standard -practice  instructions  so  that  every  one  may  know 
what  his  part  in  the  game  is,  there  is  definite  responsibility, 
there  are  reliable,  immediate  and  adequate  records  of  everything 
of  importance,  there  are  standardized  conditions  and  standard- 
ized operations  and  there  are  efficiency  rewards.  There  should 
be  a  high  membership  ideal  for  every  plant:  no  newcomer 
admitted  who  is  not  in  accord  with  the  standards  of  conduct 
among  men,  and  with  the  order  of  life  within  the  enterprise,.. 
and  no  one  cut  off  except  for  cause.  It  is  before  he  is  admitted 
that  the  applicant  should  hear  of  the  ideals  of  the  business, 
of  its  organization  and  methods.  Owners  must  transmit  ideals 
to  the  workers.  It  is  idle  to  expect  them  to  rise  above  the 
'spirit  of  the  place.'  Punishment  for  infraction,  and  elimi- 
nation for  neglect  must  not  depend  upon  the  undisciphned  acts 
of  discipUne  of  individuals  clothed  with  a  little  brief  authority. 
Common  ideals  striven  for  by  a  disciplined  organization,  su- 
pernal common  sense  which  forgets  the  little  for  the  sake  of  the 
larger  achievements,  necessarily  result  in  cooperation." 


Aims  and  Their  Realization  11 

5.  Fair  Deal.  "With  workers  selected  as  to  aptitudes  and 
character,  skill  and  disposition,  with  all  conditions  standard- 
ized for  general  welfare  and  contentment,  fair  deal  is  secured 
through  sympathy,  imagination  and  justice.  Provided  for  in 
the  organization,  founded  on  ideals,  on  common  sense,  devel- 
oped by  competent  advisers,  simpUfied  by  vigorous  exclusion 
of  the  unfit,  fair  deal  should  be  carried  into  effect  through  reli- 
able, immediate  and  adequate  records,  standard  practice,  definite 
instructions,  schedules  and  other  efficiency  principles." 

6.  Reliable,  Immediate,  Adequate  and  Permanent  Records. 
Records  as  to  each  detail  aggregated  into  records  as  to  the  whole. 
Records  as  to  each  item  today  and  throughout  time. 

7.  Despatching.  Advanced  detailed  planning  and  daily  reali- 
zation :  orderly  progress  of  work. 

8.  Standards  and  Schedules.  The  kind,  quality  and  amount 
of  work  to  be  done  should  be  clearly  defined  and  fully  under- 
stood by  each  individual.  Rational  work  standards  require 
motion  and  time  studies  of  all  operations  together  with  the  skill 
of  the  planning  manager,  the  physician  and  the  psychologist. 
Greater  and  greater  results  will  follow  constantly  diminishing 
effort. 

9.  Standardized  Conditions.  The  individual  must  be  stand- 
ardized to  suit  the  environment  or  the  environment  to  suit 
the  individual  in  order  to  secure  maximum  result  with  minimum 
expenditure  of  time,  effort  and  cost.  Conditions  should  be 
accurately  ascertained  and  taken  into  account  in  determining 
operations,  schedules  and  despatching. 

10.  Standardized  Operations.  Such  methods  of  operation 
should  be  determined  as  will  enable  each  group  of  workers 
to  accomplish  the  standard  attainments  under  the  standard 
conditions  w^ith  most  effective  expenditure  of  time,  energy  and 
cost.  Good  results  are  not  achieved  by  chance;  planning  must 
be  incorporated  as  a  habit.  It  is  not  possible  to  standardize 
each  new  operation,  but  each  w'orker  can  be  so  inspired  that 
he  will  not  waste  time,  effort  and  materials. 

11.  Written  Standard-Practice  Instructions.  When  advances 
are  definitely  recorded  and  best  practice  is  carefully  and  sys- 
tematically reduced  to  writing,  progress  is  conserved.  Each 
one  of  the  ten  preceding  efficiency  principles  can  and  should 
be   reduced   to   written   permanent   standard-practice   instruc- 


12  School  Adjustment 

tions  so  that  each  worker  may  understand  the  whole  and  also 
his  own  relation  to  it.  Standard  practice  instructions  are  the 
permanent  laws  and  practice  of  a  plant.  They  do  not  destroy 
initiative.  To  follow  the  better  and  easier  way  is  to  lessen 
effort  for  the  same  result  and  to  leave  more  opportunity  for 
higher  initiative. 

12.  Efficiency  Reward.  Individual  reward  for  individual  effi- 
ciency brings  the  highest  development  of  all  human  factors  in 
an  enterprise.  Wages  should  be  based  on  a  guaranteed  mini- 
mum with  progressive  efficiency  reward  beginning  at  a  point 
so  low  that  practically  all  workers  can  obtain  some  of  it.  Effi- 
ciency standards  should  be  so  estabhshed  as  to  conserve  health 
and  happiness. 

The  successful  operation  of  the  above  principles  requires  a 
type  of  organization  adapted  to  their  appHcation.  Authority 
must  be  clearly  defined  and  responsibility  exacted,  but  the  pri- 
mary object  of  each  superior  officer  should  be  to  facilitate  the 
work  of  his  subordinates.  ''Line"  officers  should  therefore  be 
supplemented  by  a  "staff"  of  speciaUsts  who  will  study  each 
working  unit  and  recommend  improvements  in  the  line  of  their 
particular  specialty.  The  perfected  organization  should  show 
a  complete  parallehsm  of  Une  and  staff  so  that  every  member 
of  the  line  can  at  any  time  have  the  benefit  of  staff  knowledge 
and  assistance.  It  is  important  that  the  far-reaching  signiii- 
cance  of  the  "human  element"  be  fully  recognized.  Finally 
it  is  necessary  that  the  whole  be  coordinated  and  made  to  work 
in  harmony  by  the  influence  of  a  strong  executive  officer. 

Application  to  Education 

It  is  patent  that  the  products  of  education  are  in  many  ways 
far  less  tangible  than  are  those  of  industry.  Nevertheless  the 
schools  of  a  democracy  must  justify  themselves,  and  rapid  strides 
are  being  made  in  the  scientific  determination  of  specific  edu- 
cational products  as  well  as  of  most  effective  plant,  equipment, 
organization,  courses  of  study  and  method.  The  growing  sci- 
ences of  biology,  sociology  and  psychology  have  assisted  in  the 
development  of  fundamental  educational  principles.  Reorgani- 
zation of  administrative  departments  distinguishing  clearly 
legislative  and  executive  functions  has  developed  more  effective 
school  organization  and  control.     Reorganization  of  the  schools 


Aims  and  Their  Realization  13 

themselves  to  conform  to  stages  of  pupil-growth,  and  the  pro- 
vision of  differentiated  courses  and  special  types  of  instruction 
are  evidences  of  adjustment  to  individual  differences.  Bureaus 
of  Research  and  Efficiency  in  connection  with  many  large  school 
systems  and  universities  have  already  contributed  much  by 
way  of  standardization  and  dcfinitized  aims.  Many  of  these 
improvements  are  the  direct  result  of  scientific  experimentation 
and  efficiency  studies,  but  there  is  still  much  to  be  gained  by 
the  further  application  of  the  doctrine  of  efficiency  to  the  edu- 
cational process. 

With  certain  important  modifications  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  pupils  themselves  are  the  "workers"  in  the  educational 
enterprise,  and  to  the  further  consideration  that  teachers  rank 
rather  as  craftsmen  or  foremen  than  as  operators,  the  doctrine 
of  efficiency  in  industry  here  briefly  outhned  has  direct  bearing 
upon  the  organization  and  administration  of  schools. 

Educational  Aims 

As  they  relate  to  the  school,  clearly  defined  ideals  have  their 
foundation  in  the  broader  definition  of  the  aim  of  education. 
However  variously  defined,  this  broad  aim  must  include  "that 
reconstruction  and  reorganization  of  experience  which  adds  to 
the  meaning  of  experience  and  which  increases  the  ability  and 
the  desire  of  the  individual  to  direct  the  course  of  subsequent 
experience."*  It  must  comprise  both  objective  and  subjective 
aspects — "both  adjustment  to  the  elements  of  environment  that 
are  of  concern  in  modern  life,  and  the  development,  organization 
and  training  of  powers,  so  that  the  individual  may  make  effi- 
cient and  proper  use  of  them."t  A  comprehensive  aim  of  edu- 
cation must  include  all  phases  of  life,  both  individual  and  social, 
and  must  contemplate  the  interaction  and  interdependency  of 
such  life  with  all  possible  types  of  environment — physical, 
mental,  moral,  social  and  spiritual.  In  addition,  there  must  be 
included,  with  regard  both  to  objective  and  subjective  elements, 
the  all-important  concept  of  progressive  evolution. 

The  Aim  of  a  Public  School 

The  aim  of  education  thus  must  conform  to  the  larger  aims 
of  the  society  in  which  it  functions.     As  one  of  the  educative 


*  Dewey,  John.     Democracy  and  Education,  p.  62. 
t  Ruediger,  W.  C.     Principles  of  Education,  p.  39. 


14  School  Adjustment 

institutions  of  society,  the  school  must  conform  in  its  aim,  not 
only  to  the  more  comprehensive  aim  of  education,  but  also  to 
the  aims  of  other  social  institutions  all  of  which  are  in  a  large 
sense  educative.  To  these  ends  "It  is  necessary  to  the  highest 
efficiency  of  a  school  that  its  aim  be  in  accord  with  the  principles 
of  biology,  psychology,  sociology  and  the  other  sciences  ancillary 
to  the  science  of  education,  that  it  be  in  conformity  with  the 
aim  of  the  society  of  which  the  school  is  a  part,  that  it  properly 
complement  and  supplement  the  aims  of  other  institutions,  that 
it  be  both  objective  and  subjective  in  its  reference,  that  it  fur- 
nish criteria  for  evaluation  and  selection  in  the  organization  and 
operation  of  the  school,  that  it  include  as  many  phases  of  life 
as  conditions  permit,  that  it  be  definitely  formulated,  that  it 
be  thoroughly  understood  and  appreciated  by  every  officer  and 
teacher,  that  the  part  played  by  each  activity  of  the  school 
in  its  reaUzation  be  clearly  understood  by  those  who  participate 
in  it,  and  that  the  subordinate  aims  of  these  various  activities 
harmonize  with  each  other  and  taken  together  make  complete 
the  aim  as  a  whole."* 

Accordingly,  it  is  the  aim  of  a  pubUc  school,  in  so  far  as 
conditions  permit,  progressively  to  develop  in  each  individual, 
the  knowledge,  habits  and  attitudes  that  should  be  possessed 
in  common  by  all  members  of  society,  and  in  addition,  to  foster 
the  development  of  special  types  of  interests  and  skills  in  each 
individual. 

Efficiency  Standards 

f\  In  the  interests  of  efficiency,  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
study  both  the  individual  child,  his  instincts,  capacities,  abili- 
ties and  interests,  the  probable  length  of  his  schooling,  and 
also  to  study  the  conditions  of  his  particular  environment  in 
order  that  effective  interaction  may  be  secured.  In  this  pro- 
cess, all  the  principles  of  efficiency  set  forth  above  have  imme- 
diate and  continued  appUcation,  Both  aims  and  operations 
must  be  firmly  founded  on  common  sense,  competent  counsel, 
discipUne  and  fair  deal,  and  secured  with  the  aid  of  scientifically 
determined  standards,  schedules,  conditions,  and  operations. 
These,  with  written  standard  practice  instructions  and  efficiency 
reward  must  be  bound  together  by  an  upbuilding  constructive 


Updegraff,  H.     Educational  Administration  (unpublished). 


Aims  and  Their  Realization  15 

organization  tiiat  will  secure  the  freest,  fullest  and  promptest 
operation  of  all  the  efficiency  principles.  This  organization 
must  be  as  simple  as  possible,  observing  both  functional  and 
departmental  lines  of  cleavage,  with  authority  clearly  defined 
and  accountability  constantly  exacted.  The  primary  object 
of  each  superior  officer  should  be  to  faciUtate  in  every  possible 
way  the  work  of  those  under  his  direction.  The  line  officers, 
both  principal  and  teachers,  should  have  the  constant  assistance 
and  advice  of  a  staff  of  competent  experts  in  the  form  of  special 
supervisors  whose  recommendations  should  guide  the  line 
officer's  work.  The  harmonizing  influence  of  a  strong  executive 
should  insure  fullest  co6peration  on  the  part  of  teachers  and 
pupils  alike,  through  complete  understanding  and  general  ob- 
servation of  the  first  five  or  altruistic  principles,  and  should 
secure  upon  this  foundation  the  most  effective  and  constant 
operation  of  the  remaining  principles. 

Aims  and  Conditions 

The  close  interconnection  of  all  the  principles  of  efficiency 
relating  to  the  conduct  of  a  school  and  their  complete  depend- 
ence upon  standard  conditions  make  it  indispensable  to  the 
successful  achievement  of  the  aim  that  such  conditions  be 
definitely  ascertained  and  consciously  taken  into  account  in 
the  determination  of  working  aims  and  the  methods  of  securing 
immediate  objectives.  In  a  large  system  of  pubhc  schools 
there  are  many  standard  conditions  common  to  all  individual 
school  organizations.  PoHtical,  legal  and  financial  conditions 
are  uniform  throughout  the  city  and  tend  to  affect  the  work  of 
each  school  in  like  manner.  Conditions  as  to  plant  will 
vary  with  the  period  of  construction  of  the  building  and  the 
rapidity  of  growth  of  a  given  locality,  but  there  is  always  pres- 
ent at  least  an  approach  toward  a  common  level.  Personnel, 
supplies  and  equipment  tend  to  general  uniformity/.  But,  be- 
cause of  the  tendency  of  people  in  a  cosmopolitan  city  to  segre- 
gate themselves  into  relatively  small  communities  preserving 
uniform  characteristics  as  to  nationaUty,  race  and  economic 
status,  it  is  plain  that  the  general  social  conditions  presented 
to  the  different  schools  of  a  large  system  will  be  extremely  variant. 


16  School  Adjustment 

Working  Aims 

Having  established  the  aim  of  a  pubhc  school  from  the  basis 
of  its  dependence  on  the  general  aim  of  education,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  refer  each  element  of  the  ideal  aim  of  a  school 
to  the  conditions  circumscribing  its  operations.  The  ideal  aim 
will  be  modified  in  its  contact  with  the  realities  of  environing 
conditions.  Only  as  these  conditions  are  clearly  recognized 
and  the  consequent  modifications  of  the  aim  definitely  formu- 
lated, can  there  result  a  practical  working  aim  which  will  guide 
the  operations  of  the  school  in  the  highest  efficiency.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  this  study  to  make  such  a  detailed  investigation 
into  the  peculiar  standard  conditions  surrounding  a  given  unit 
school  organization  as  will  contribute  definitely  to  the  formu- 
lation of  a  working  aim  for  that  school.  Such  an  aim  will  be 
in  strict  conformity  with  the  general  aim  of  the  school  system 
of  which  the  given  school  organization  is  an  integral  part — 
but  it  will  be  so  only  in  so  far  as  conditions  permit. 

Having  determined  the  working  aim  of  the  school  as  resulting 
from  the  interaction  of  the  pecuhar  standard  conditions  and 
the  ideal  aim,  the  principles  of  efficiency  demand  that  appropri- 
ate adjustments  be  made  in  standard  attainments,  operations, 
schedules,  personnel,  plant,  equipment  and  organization.  The 
close  connection  of  all  efficiency  principles  makes  necessary 
this  general  readjustment  in  order  that  complete  harmonious 
functioning  can  be  estabhshed  with  highest  efficiency. 

Summary 

Efficiency  principles  in  industry  with  such  amplifications  and 
adaptations  as  are  made  necessary  by  the  vastly  different  char- 
acter of  the  enterprise  are  directly  appHcable  to  the  aims,  opera- 
tions and  organization  of  the  school. 

The  aim  of  education  is  broader  than  that  of  the  school, 
including  all  life  experience.  The  school  must  take  its  place 
among  other  educative  institutions  and  perform  its  functions 
with  due  regard  to  theirs. 

The  general  principles  of  aim  further  require  conformity 
with  the  principles  of  ancillary  sciences,  reference  to  both  ob- 
jective and  subjective  aspects  of  experience,  definite  formula- 
tion, thorough  understanding  and  complete  harmonization  of 
all  subordinate  aims. 


Aims  and  Their  Realization  17 

The  achievement  of  the  ideal  aim  of  a  pubhc  school  depends 
upon  the  standard  conditions  surrounding  the  enterprise.  The 
interaction  of  aims  and  conditions  determines  working  aims  or 
immediate  objectives,  which  in  turn  make  necessary  the  proper 
adjustment  of  subordinate  aims,  standard  attainments,  opera- 
tions, schedules,  plant,  equipment,  personnel  and  organization. 


CHAPTER  II 

STANDARD  CONDITIONS 

Conditions  Shape  School  Policy 

If  the  school  is  to  free  itself  from  the  effects  of  the  ever  present 
tendency  of  all  institutions  to  crystallization,  if  indeed  the 
school  is  to  serve  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  created  by  soci- 
ety, then  it  must  maintain  close  and  constant  contact  with  the 
ever-changing  needs  of  a  dynamic  social  organization.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  its  interrelations  with  the  other  institutions  of 
society,  all  of  which  are  in  a  sense  educative,  the  school  must 
hold  steadfastly  to  its  particular  aim.  The  functions  of  other 
institutions  must  not  be  assumed  by  the  school  because  of 
their  neglect  by  those  institutions  unless  these  functions  can  be 
performed  by  the  school  more  economically  and  efficiently. 
Even  in  this  case  the  school  should  perform  [these  functions 
only  so  long  as  necessity  and  economy  demand  and  should 
transfer  them  to  their  proper  institutions  as  soon  as  expediency 
permits.  While  conserving  the  best  of  the  past  and  filling 
the  gaps  left  by  other  institutions,  the  school  must  progressively 
minister  to  the  needs  of  present  society. 

With  such  considerations  in  mind  it  is  plain  that  the  success 
of  a  school  or  school  system  can  be  judged  only  in  the  light 
of  the  environment  within  which  it  works,  and  it  is  essential 
that  social,  financial,  legal,  physical  and  educational  condi- 
tions be  clearly  discerned  and  fully  recognized  in  the  formulation 
of  the  working  aims  of  a  school.  These  conditions  when  ac- 
cepted and  defined  as  those  upon  and  within  which  the  school 
must  do  its  work,  become  the  standard  conditions  of  the  enter- 
prise. Some  are  imposed  from  without  and  are  in  large  degree 
beyond  the  control  of  the  school.  These  are  mainly  social, 
financial  and  legal  conditions.  The  school  must  accept  them 
as  it  finds  them  and  adjust  its  standard  operations,  schedules 
and  attainments  to  them.  However,  in  the  very  process  of 
ascertaining  and  evaluating  these  circumscribing  external  con- 
ditions, and  of  adjusting  its  work  to  them,  the  school  as  an 
organized  agent  of  society  exercises  its  influence  toward  im- 
proving conditions  and  making  them  as  favorable  as  possible. 

18 


Standard  Conditions  19 

Other  conditions  are  created  from  within  and  may  therefore  be 
evaluated  and  adjusted  as  efficiency  dictates.  Such  conditions 
are  represented  by  the  school  plant,  equipment,  supplies,  quali- 
fications of  personnel,  size  of  classes,  length  of  term.  These 
internal  conditions  are  of  course  limited  by  external  standard 
conditions.  Within  such  limitations,  having  chosen  the  most 
efficient  internal  conditions,  they  should  be  accepted  as  stand- 
ard. Both  external  and  internal  conditions  then  must  be  taken 
into  account  in  the  conduct  of  the  school,  and  an  adequate 
understanding  of  these  conditions  and  their  effects  is  a  pre- 
requisite to  sound  judgment  on  the  measure  of  success  with 
which  a  school  is  performing  its  full  function. 

The  School's  Community 

The  Stanton-Arthur  School  serves  a  community  which  is  an 
integral  part  of  a  vastly  larger  social  group  comprising  the  en- 
tire city  of  Philadelphia.  Located  in  the  heart  of  the  city  just 
south  and  west  of  the  business  center,  this  community,  if  so 
it  may  be  called,  is  inextricably  interwoven  with  the  whole  social 
fabric  of  the  city.  Isolation  of  important  characteristics  there- 
fore is  fraught  with  extreme  difficulty,  though  this  is  some- 
what mitigated  by  the  fact  that  the  community  in  question 
manifests  characteristics  which  not  only  distinguish  it  from 
the  larger  community  but  which  present  pecuhar  and  markedly 
different  social,  economic  and  educational  problems. 

Chief  among  these  distinguishing  characteristics  is  the  fact 
that  the  community  served  by  the  school  in  question  is  one  of 
the  city's  largest  centers  of  negro  population.  Indeed,  while 
the  section  from  which  the  school  draws  pupils  may  properly 
be  considered  a  center  of  negro  population,  in  a  broader  sense, 
it  is  but  an  expansion  of  the  largest  and  most  congested  negro 
settlement  in  the  city.  This  original  negro  settlement  in-  the 
7th  Ward  is  the  gateway  of  entrance  into  the  city  for  most 
negro  immigrants.  From  here,  after  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  new  environment  recent  arrivals  move  out  into  one  of  the 
many  other  centers  of  negro  population  in  the  city.  As  far 
back  as  1870  many  of  the  better  negro  families,  in  search  of 
more  congenial  and  commodious  quarters,  took  up  residence 
in  the  section  just  south  of  the  7th  Ward  settlement.  This 
district,    comprising   48   city   blocks,    bounded   by   South   St., 


20  School  Adjustinent 

Broad  St.,  Washington  Ave.  and  22nd  St.,  was  for  a  long  time 
the  residence  section  of  the  ehte  of  Philadelphia's  negro  popu- 
lation. However,  the  pressure  of  colored  immigration  so  in- 
creased the  number  of  negro  residents  in  this  section  and  corre- 
spondingly so  decreased  the  number  of  white  residents,  that 
there  exists  here  today  not  only  a  larger  proportion  of  negroes 
to  white  population,  but  also  a  larger  absolute  number  of  negroes 
than  in  many  small  towns  of  the  South. 

Since  the  section  bounded  above  comprises  more  than  half  of 
the  political  division  of  the  city  known  as  the  30th  Ward,  the 
statistics  for  this  larger  division,  extending  west  to  the  Schuyl- 
kill River,  may  profitably  be  studied  in  this  connection.  U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Census  statistics  for  1910  relating  to  the  State,  City 
and  Ward  are  presented  in  Table  I,  together  with  the  enroll- 
ment of  the  school  under  consideration. 

Table  I 
Racial  Composition  of  Population  and  School  Enrollment 

White  Negro  %  Negro 

Penna.,  1910 7,467,713  193,919  2.5 

Phila.,  1910 1,463,371  84,459  5.5 

30th  Ward,  1910 19,189  9,999  .34.0 

Stanton-Arthur  School,  1919            318  1,132  78.1 

It  will  be  noted  there  that  colored  inhabitants  of  the  State 
of  Pennsylvania  comprise  2.5%  of  the  total  population.  In 
the  city  of  Philadelphia  this  proportion  is  more  than  doubled, 
i.  e.,  5.5%,  showing  the  tendency  of  negroes  from  the  South  to 
locate  in  urban  centers.  In  the  30th  Ward  of  Philadelphia  we 
find  an  absolute  number  of  negroes  totaling  9,999  and  repre- 
senting 34%  or  more  than  one-third  of  the  population  of  the 
Ward.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Ward  represent  2%  of  the 
total  population  of  the  city.  White  residents  comprise  only 
1.2%  of  the  total  city  white  population,  while  colored  residents 
comprise  12%  of  the  total  city  colored  population. 

Increasing  Proportion  of  Negroes 
The  figures  presented  above  represent  the  number  and  pro- 
portions of  population  groups  in  1910.  Since  that  time  there 
has  been  a  constant  influx  of  colored  population  from  the  poorer 
sections  of  the  7th  Ward,  from  the  South  and  from  other  cities. 
During  the  period  of  industrial  prosperity  incident  to  the  war, 
many  negroes  found  it  possible  to  improve  on  the  poor  living 


Standard  Conditions  21 

conditions  afforded  in  the  more  congested  sections.  The  short- 
age of  labor,  the  lure  of  high  wages  and  induced  immigration 
brought  large  numbers  of  laborers  from  the  South  and  from 
other  cities  of  the  North.  Hence  this  section  has  experienced 
a  large  increase  in  the  number  of  negro  residents  and  a  corre- 
sponding exodus  of  whites.  It  is  estimated,  accordingly,  that 
at  present  more  than  half  of  the  population  of  the  30th  Ward 
is  colored.  When  we  consider,  further,  that  this  colored  popu- 
lation is  concentrated  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  ward,  it  be- 
comes evident  that  the  school  which  serves  this  section  has 
not  only  experienced  a  large  increase  in  colored  pupilage,  but 
has  been  called  upon  to  face  many  problems  of  readjustment. 
The  present  school  enrollment  is  78.1%  colored  (see  Table  I) 
and  many  of  these  children  are  comparatively  recent  entrants 
to  the  school. 

The  rapid  increases  and  shifting  of  population  groups  indi- 
cated above  have  been  due  to  abnormal  economic  conditions 
incident  to  the  World  War.  Some  idea  of  normal  tendencies 
may  be  gathered  from  a  brief  study  of  conditions  existing  in 
Philadelphia  over  a  period  of  years  prior  to  1910.  It  will  be 
seen  in  Table  II  that  while  the  white  population  of  Philadelphia 
nearly  doubled  in  the  30-year  period  from  1880  to  1910,  the 
colored  population  nearly  trebled.  The  rates  of  increase  over 
the  population  10  years  previous  show  that  increases  of  white 
population  average  about  22%  and  have  been  growing  relatively 
smaller  each  decade. 

Increases  in  colored  population  do  not  show  the  same  regu- 
larity, varying  from  24.2  to  57.8%.  This  irregularity  is  partly 
due  to  faulty  census  enumerations  but  far  more  to  economic 
and  social  conditions.  Problems  of  the  extension  of  negro 
residence  areas,  labor  union  difficulties,  race  riots  and  the  de- 
mand and  supply  of  labor  all  have  marked  effect  upon  the  growth 
of  negro  population.  It  is  plain,  however,  that  negro  popula- 
tion is  growing  much  more  rapidly  than  white.  Another  indi- 
cation of  the  same  tendency  is  seen  in  the  per  cent,  of  negroes 
in  the  total  population  of  the  city.  This  has  grown  from  3.8% 
to  5.5%  in  1910  and  according  to  the  estimate  of  the  Chief 
Statistician  for  the  city  this  per  cent,  is  6.7  for  the  year  1919.* 


*  Cattell,  Edward  J.,  Chief  Statistician,  Phila. 


22 


School  Adjustment 


The  estimates  upon  which  this  rate  is  based  are  also  given  in 
Table  II.  These  would  indicate  that  since  1910  there  has 
been  an  increase  of  42.0%  in  negro  population  against  a  corre- 
sponding increase  in  white  population  of  14.8%.  If  we  can 
accept  these  estimates  of  the  number  of  white  and  colored 
inhabitants  of  Philadelphia  in  1919,  Table  II  shows  that  the 
colored  population  has  doubled  itself  in  the  20-year  period  from 
1880  to  1900  and  again  from  1900  to  1919.  During  these  same 
periods  the  white  population  increased  only  50%  and  333^% 
respectively. 

Table  II 

Number  and  per  cent.  Increase  of  White  and  Negro  Population  of  Philadelphia 

by  Decades — per  cent.  Negro  in  Total  Population 


White 

Negro 

Year 

No. 

%  inc. 

No. 

%  inc. 

%  Negro  in 
total  pop. 

1880 
1890 
1900 
1910 
est.  1919 

815,362 
1,006,590 
1,229,625 
1,463,371 
1,680,000 

25.0 
23.4 
22.1 
18.0 
14.8 

31,699 
39,371 
62,613 
84,459 
120,000 

43.1 
24.2 
57.8 
34.5 
42.0 

3.8 
3.9 
4.8 
5.5 
6.7 

From  such  indications,  then,  we  may  expect  the  negro  popu- 
lation of  Philadelphia  to  become  proportionately  as  well  as 
absolutely  larger  in  future  years.  It  is  plain  therefore  that 
this  condition  calls  for  circumspect,  foresighted  provisions  for 
social  and  economic  adjustments,  not  for  the  good  of  the  negro, 
but  for  the  safety,  well-being,  happiness  and  economic  pros- 
perity of  every  member  of  the  community,  white  and  black. 

School  Census 

The  school  census  enumeration  of  children  between  the  ages 
of  six  and  sixteen  years  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia  (Table  III) 
shows  a  fairly  regular  rate  of  increase  for  white  pupils,  varying 
from  1.7  to  3.2%.  For  negro  pupils,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
lowest  rate  of  annual  increase  is  but  one-tenth  lower  than  the 
highest  shown  by  the  w^hites,  and  the  rate  of  increase  in  two  of 
the  annual  periods  is  as  high  as  9.5%. 

In  the  years  1916,  1917  and  1918  negro  pupilage  increased 
three  times  as  rapidly  as  did  white.  In  1919  conditions  are 
somewhat  abnormal,  due  to  the  exodus  from  the  city  of  many 
people  previously  engaged  in  war  industry.     However,  even  in 


Standard  Conditions  23 

this  year,  the  negroes  show  a  higher  percentage  of  increase  over 
the  preceding  year  than  do  the  whites. 

Table  III 
Enumeration  of  Children  6-16  Years  of  Age* 

%  Increase 
White  Negro  White  Negro 

1915 286,560  12,945 

1916 294,001  13,902  2.3  7.4 

1917 289,010  15,228  1.7  9.5 

1918 308,576  16,682  3.2  9.5 

1919 315,117  17,197  2.1  3.1 

*  Annual  Reports  of  Bureau  of  Compulsory  Education,  Pbib.,  1915-1919. 

Excess  of  Females  in  Negro  Population 
Analysis  of  the  statistics  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  for  1910 
shows  a  marked  excess  of  females  in  the  negro  population. 
Table  IV  shows  the  totals  for  population  separated  by  sex, 
nativity  and  race,  together  with  the  number  of  females  to 
each  100  males. 

Table  IV 

Sex  Distribution^ 

Population  of  Phila.  1910  No.  of  females  to 

Male                  Female  each  100  males 

Total  Population 760,463                788,545  104 

Native  White 525,933                554,860  106 

Foreign-born  White 193,994                188,584  97 

Negro 39,431                   45,028  114 

t  Statistical  Abstract  U.  S.  Census,  1910 — Penna.  Supplement,  p.  609. 

The  same  causes  which  operate  to  bring  to  the  country  a 
larger  proportion  of  foreign-born  white  males  than  females, 
operate  also  to  bring  to  urban  communities  larger  proportions 
of  negro  females  than  males.  Economic  opportunity  in  the 
country  at  large  is  greater  for  foreign-born  white  males  than  it 
is  for  females.  In  normal  times,  economic  opportunity  in  cities 
is  larger  for  negro  females  than  for  males.  The  large  employ- 
ment of  negro  females  in  domestic  service,  and  the  restriction 
of  employments  open  to  negroes  in  general  has  brought  about 
the  abnormal  excess  in  the  proportion  of  females  to  males  shown 
above. 

The  fact  indicated  in  Table  IV,  that  the  proportion  of  negro 
females  to  males  is  10%  in  excess  of  the  proportion  of  white 
females  to  males,  is  one  of  important  social  significance.  Fur- 
ther analysis  of  the  above  totals  into  age  groups  shows  that 


24 


School  Adjustment 


this  disproportion  of  the  sexes  is  most  acute  in  those  age  g-^oups 
where  serious  problems  of  sex  relationship  and  immorahty  are 
Ukely  to  arise.  It  will  be  seen  in  Table  V  that,  for  ages  15  to 
19,  negro  females  are  53%  in  excess  of  males  and  for  ages  20  to 
24  the  excess  is  52%.  In  corresponding  age  groups,  native 
white  population  shows  an  excess  of  females  of  only  6%  and  8% 
respectively. 

Table  V 

Age  and  Sex  Structure  of  Native  White  and  Negro  Population  of  Philadelphia, 

1910 


Native  White 

Negro 

Age 

No.  of  Fe- 
males to 

No.  of  Fe- 
males to 

Male 

Female 

each  100 
Males 

Male 

Female 

each  100 
Males 

Under  5  Ye 

ars      72,146 

71,177 

99 

3,391 

3,472 

102 

5-  9 

59,449 

59,134 

100 

2,716 

2,907 

107 

10-14 

56,403 

56,168 

100 

2,348 

2,857 

122 

15-19 

55,217 

58,284 

106 

2,268 

3,475 

153 

20-24 

50,579 

54,814 

108 

3,935 

5,989 

152 

25-34 

82,263 

88,097 

107 

10,467 

12,000 

115 

35-44 

65,944 

70,787 

107 

8,044 

7,686 

96 

45-64 

69,683 

76,523 

110 

5,412 

5,442 

100 

65  yrs.  and 

over    13,497 

19,024 

126 

685 

1,067 

156 

Age  unknoA 

vn            752 

852 

113 

165 

131 

80 

This  condition  has  direct  bearing  upon  the  unhealthy  moral 
tone  that  pervades  much  of  the  social  relationships  of  the  middle 
and  lower  classes  of  negroes.  Some  tendency  toward  a  more 
even  distribution  of  the  sexes  can  be  detected  in  recent  years 
due  to  the  partial  removal  of  restrictions  on  negro  employ- 
ment, especially  during  the  pressure  of  the  war  on  industry. 
However,  this  reform  has  not  gone  far  enough,  nor  continued 
sufficiently  long,  nor  has  it  affected  the  age  groups  where  the 
disproportion  is  most  acute,  to  obviate  the  social  difficulties 
consequent  upon  an  unnatural  distribution  of  the  sexes. 

Excess  of  Young  Negroes  in  City 

The  negro  population  of  the  city  is  further  characterized  by 
pecuharities  in  its  age  structure.  The  population  figures  by 
age  groups  given  in  Table  V  are  reduced  to  per  cents  in  Table  VI. 
These  show  a  smaller  proportion  of  children  among  the  negroes 
of  the  city  than  exists  in  the  native  white  population. 


Standard  Conditions 


25 


In  each  one  of  the  first  four  age  groups  the  proportion  of 
negroes  to  total  negro  population  is  approximately  4%  less 
than  corresponding  per  cents  for  native  white  population. 
Nearly  half  of  the  native  white  population  (45.5%)  is  under 
20  years  of  age  while  slightly  over  one-fourth  of  negro  popula- 
tion (27.5%)  is  found  under  that  age.  In  each  of  the  three 
age  groups  from  20  to  44  the  negro  population  shows  proportions 
markedly  in  excess  of  those  for  whites.  Between  these  ages 
are  found  57%  of  the  negro  population  and  38%  of  the  white. 

Table  VI 


Age  and  Sex  Structure  of  Native  White  and  Negro 

Population  of  Philadelphia, 

1910 — m  per  cents. 

Age 

Native  White 

Negro 

Male 

Female 

Male 

Female 

Under  5  Years 

13.7 

12.8 

8.6 

7.7 

5-  9      " 

11.3 

10.7 

6.9 

6.5 

10-14      " 

10.8 

10.1 

6.0 

6.2 

15-19      " 

10.5 

10.5 

5.7 

7.7 

20-24      " 

9.6 

9.9 

10.0 

13.3 

25-34      " 

15.6 

15.9 

26.6 

26.7 

35-44      " 

12.5 

12.8 

20.4 

17.1 

45-64      " 

13.3 

13.8 

13.7 

12.1 

65  yrs.  and  over 

2.6 

3.4 

1.7 

2.4 

Age  unknown 

.1 

.1 

.4 

.3 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

The  small  proportion  of  children  is  not  so  much  the  result  of  a 
low  birth  rate  in  the  negro  population  as  the  excessive  number 
between  20  and  44  years  of  age  is  due  to  the  instability  of  the 
population  and  the  tendency  of  negroes  to  migrate  to  the  city 
leaving  their  families  in  the  South.  This  group  contains  also 
the  large  number  of  unmarried  negroes  who  have  come  to  the 
city  for  employment.  It  is  these  two  groups,  both  married  and 
single,  that  create  many  pressing  social  problems,  not  the  least 
of  which  is  the  lodging  house  evil  with  its  problems  of  over- 
crowding, unsanitary  housing,  immorality  and  crime.  Un- 
attached, improvident  and  without  the  restraints  of  home  ties, 
the  individuals  of  these  over-large  middle-age  groups  do  much 
to  lower  the  moral  tone  of  the  whole  of  negro  society. 

Unstable  Marital  Condition 

Probably  the  greatest  inaccuracies  in  census  returns  are  found 
in  the  statistics  concerning  the  marital  condition  of  the  popu- 


26  School  Adjustment 

lation.  This  is  especially  true  of  figures  relating  to  negroes. 
Moreover,  gross  percentages  do  not  form  a  satisfactory  basis 
for  comparison  of  age,  sex  or  race  groups  in  regard  to  marital 
condition  because  of  the  peculiarities  of  age  and  sex  distribution 
indicated  above.  For  example,  the  U.  S.  census  for  1910  gives 
57.2%  as  the  proportion  of  Philadelphia  negro  males  married 
against  52,1%  for  native  white  males.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  in  Table  VI,  57%  of  the  total  negro  male  population  of 
Philadelphia  was  shown  to  be  confined  to  the  age  span  20  to 
44  years,  while  only  37.7%  of  the  white  male  population  is 
found  in  these  years  which  represent  the  marrying  age.  Con- 
sequently it  is  false  to  conclude  that  negro  males  are  married 
in  larger  proportion  than  whites.  Figures  for  the  U.  S.  as  a 
whole*  indicate  a  higher  percentage  of  married  negroes  up  to 
the  age  of  25  for  females  and  30  for  males.  Beyond  these  ages 
the  native  white  population  shows  higher  proportions  married. 
Also  there  is  shown  to  be  a  higher  proportion  of  single  negro 
males  in  the  North  (39.2%)  than  in  the  South  (34.8%),  a  con- 
sequence of  the  selection  effected  by  migration  of  single  negroes 
to  the  North. 

A  careful,  intensive,  social  study  of  the  negroes  of  Philadelphia 
made  in  1899  by  one  of  their  own  race  develops  the  following 
pertinent  conclusions  in  regard  to  the  negro  population  of  the 
city:  "There  is  a  large  proportion  of  single  men;  the  number 
of  married  women  is  small,  while  the  large  number  of  widowed 
and  separated  indicates  widespread  and  early  breaking  up  of 
family  Hfe.  The  number  of  single  women  is  probably  lessened 
by  unfortunate  girls  and  increased  somewhat  by  deserted  wives 
who  report  themselves  as  single.  The  causes  of  desertion  are 
partly  laxity  in  morals  and  partly  the  difficulty  of  supporting 
a  family.  The  great  number  of  widows  is  increased  by  un- 
acknowledged desertion  and  separation,  and  unmarried  mothers 
who  thus  represent  themselves.  The  result  of  this  large  num- 
ber of  homes  without  husbands  is  to  increase  the  burden  of 
charity  and  benevolence  and  also,  on  account  of  poor  home 
life,  to  increase  crime.  Here  is  a  wide  field  for  social  regenera- 
tion." The  author  further  observes:  "It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  negro  home  and  stable  marriage  state  is  for  the 


*  The  r^egro  Population  in  U.  S.,  1790-1915,    U.  S.  Census  Bureau  1918, 
pp.  243-6. 


Standard  Conditions  27 

mass  of  the  colored  people  of  the  country  and  for  a  large  per 
cent  of  those  of  Philadelphia,  a  new  social  institution.  The 
great  weakness  of  the  negro  family  is  still  lack  of  respect  for 
the  marriage  bond,  inconsiderate  entrance  into  it  and  a  bad 
household  economy  and  family  government."* 

Conditions  such  as  Dr.  DuBois  describes  above  are  all  too 
prevalent  in  the  negro  population.  They  cannot  fail  to  be 
reflected  in  the  health,  morality  and  general  deportment  of 
the  children.  Indeed,  one  of  the  most  pressing  problems  in 
connection  with  the  proper  development  of  the  negro  race  is 
presented  here  in  the  tendency  of  its  children  to  immorality. 
Innocently  they  reflect  all  that  is  not  innocent.  Their  "fun" 
is  ofttimes  steeped  in  depravity.  Such  conditions,  the  results 
of  the  unhealthy  moral  atmosphere  of  the  street  and  often  of 
the  home,  while  unfortunate  in  the  extreme,  can  be  remedied 
only  by  a  slow  process  of  race  regeneration  and  development. 
"It  must  be  recognized  that  one  of  the  strongest  elements  in 
racial  development  is  purity  of  family  life."t  In  this  connec- 
tion the  school  must  consciously  extend  its  influence  through 
the  pupils  to  the  homes  of  the  community. 

Illiteracy 

Only  a  rough  indication  of  the  educational  status  of  the  popu- 
lation can  be  secured  from  figures  on  illiteracy.  These  show 
that  of  the  total  population  of  Philadelphia  10  years  of  age  and 
over,  4.6%  were  illiterate.  The  native  white  population  shows 
only  .0%,  and  negroes  are  7.8%  illiterate. J  While  this  per 
cent,  of  illiteracy  is  high,  it  shows  marked  improvement  over 
past  decades  when  negro  illiteracy  in  Philadelphia  was  18  and 
22%,  In  the  30th  ward  the  condition  with  regard  to  illiteracy 
is  better  than  in  the  city  as  a  whole.  Of  the  total  ward  popu- 
lation over  10  years,  3.5%  are  illiterate,  and  among  males  of 
voting  age  3.1%  are  illiterate.  However,  it  is  plain  from  con- 
tact with  these  people  that  the  degree  of  education  is  not  high, 
especially  among  the  negroes.  The  majority  have  only  a  partial 
common  school  education  from  ineflficient  rural  schools  of  the 
South.     Many  others  have  continued  in  city  schools  only  so 


*  DuBois.  W.  E.  B.     The  Philadelphia  Negro,  pp.  66-72. 

t  Page,  Thomas  X.     The  Negro:    The  Southerner's  Problem,  p.  306. 

t  Abstract  U.  S.  Census  1910,  pp.  631-649. 


28  School  Adjustment 

long  as  compelled  to  do  so.  Consequently,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  educational  ideals  of  the  people  are  not  generally  so  high  as 
to  furnish  incentive,  encouragement  and  guidance  from  the 
home  to  children  now  in  school. 

Shifting  Population 

Of  the  total  native  population  in  urban  districts  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 11.7%  were  born  outside  the  state;  while  58.8%  of  the 
urban  negro  population  of  Pennsylvania  were  not  born  in  the 
state.*  This  high  proportion  of  immigrant  negroes  would  very 
probably  be  more  than  65%  if  the  figures  for  Philadelphia  alone 
were  available.  With  only  one-third  of  the  negro  population 
of  Philadelphia  born  here  and  with  the  conservative  estimate 
of  one-fourth  of  the  remainder  resident  in  the  city  less  than 
twenty  years,  it  is  evident  that  approximately  one-half  of  its 
negro  population  can  in  no  way  be  considered  a  product  of  the 
city. 

The  influx  of  negroes  to  Philadelphia  is  not  one  of  famihes 
but  is  composed  largely  of  young  people  from  twenty  to  thirty 
years  of  age  who  migrate  from  the  rural  districts  of  the  South 
to  the  small  towns  and  finally  to  the  larger  urban  centers.  This 
condition  was  indicated  above  in  the  excessive  proportion  of 
negroes  in  age-groups  20-34.  Besides  this  large  group  there 
are  a  considerable  number  of  families  migrating  to  the  city. 
This  was  especially  noticeable  in  the  great  wave  of  1917  when 
from  20,000  to  60,000  negroes  came  to  Philadelphia.  The 
problems  of  social  and  economic  adjustment  of  these  immi- 
grants are  in  many  respects  similar  to  those  presented  by  immi- 
grant foreign  populations,  though  comphcated  to  no  small 
degree  by  racial  barriers.  The  negro  immigrant,  like  the  for- 
eigner, is  likely  on  his  arrival  in  the  city  to  settle  first  in  the 
congested  slum  district  where  housing  is  poor,  tenements  are 
unsanitary,  and  the  general  social  environment  is  conducive 
to  ill-health,  immorality  and  crime.  In  search  for  more  satis- 
factory living  conditions  the  better  negroes  move  out  to  the 
more  thinly  settled  negro  sections  whenever  opportunity  is 
afforded.  Often,  however,  only  large  houses  are  available  and 
lodgers  are  taken  to  help  support  the  undertaking.     Hence  the 


*  U.  S.  Census  Abstract  1910,  p.  605. 


Standard  Conditions  29 

privacy  of  home  life  is  disrupted  and  there  is  denied  to  the 
family  the  opportunity  for  building  up  those  home  interests  so 
essential  to  the  proper  development  of  the  negro. 

Housing  Conditions 
A  study  made  by  the  Philadelphia  Housing  Association  of 
1158  negro  homes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  30th  Ward  shows  that 
95%  of  the  families  are  tenants  and  that  the  negro,  generally 
with  no  steady  income,  has  to  suffer  the  same  gross  evils  of 
insanitation  as  afflict  Italian  or  Jewish  immigrants.  Of  the 
houses  studied,  72%  had  toilets  outside  the  building  and  32% 
had  privy  vaults;  2%  were  characterized  as  filthy  and  10% 
as  unclean  and  in  general  disrepair,  responsibility  for  which 
rested  upon  the  owner.  785  families  lived  in  4  to  6  rooms, 
147  in  3  rooms  or  less  and  226  occupied  7-  to  11-room  houses. 
The  excess  space  in  these  large  houses  was  in  most  cases  devoted 
to  the  accommodation  of  lodgers.  Indeed  35%  of  the  families 
studied  took  lodgers  and  17%  of  all  occupants  were  lodgers.* 
The  houses  occupied  by  negroes  are  likely  then  to  be  either 
too  small  or  too  large  for  proper  home  conditions.  Small 
houses  are  usually  located  on  undrained  streets  where  unsani- 
tary conditions  abound;  large  houses  in  better  repair  and  in: 
more  desirable  environments  can  be  supported  only  with  the 
assistance  of  lodgers.  Both  conditions  are  opposed  to  the  best 
development  of  the  proper  influences  of  the  home  and  the  most 
profitable  employment  of  leisure. 

Occupations 
The  percentages  of  the  population  10  years  of  age  and  over 
engaged  in  gainful  occupations  are  given  in  Table  VII. 

Table  VII 
Per  cent  of  Population  10  Years  of  Age  and  Over  Engaged  in  Gainful  Occu- 
pations, 1910] 

Pennsylvania  Philadelphia 
Native  White               Negro  Negro 

Male 77.4  86.0  88.9 

Female 18.8  48.7  58.3 

It  will  be  seen  here  that  for  both  males  and  females  the  pro- 
portions gainfully  employed  are  greater  for  negroes  than  for 


*  Newman,  B.  J.     Housing  the  City  Negro,  Phila.  Housing  Ass'n. 
t  U.  S.  Census,  Occupation  Statistics,  p.  66. 


30  School  Adjustment 

whites  in  Pennsylvania  and  still  greater  for  the  city  negroes 
than  for  the  state  as  a  whole.  The  large  proportion  of  negro 
females  employed  is  an  important  factor  in  the  home  life  of  the 
race.  The  great  number  of  young  negro  women  in  the  popu- 
lation, of  course,  tends  to  increase  this  proportion,  but  the  most 
significant  element  is  contributed  by  the  large  number  of  working 
mothers  and  wives  who  find  it  necessary  thus  to  supplement  the 
meager  wages  of  their  husbands  or  to  provide  complete  support 
for  their  families. 

There  is  wide  divergence  in  the  character  of  employments  of 
white  and  negro.  The  white  population  is  engaged  chiefly  in 
mechanical,  industrial,  business  and  commercial  pursuits,  while 
negroes  are  in  large  measure  confined  to  laboring  and  domestic 
service.  Of  the  29,561  male  negroes  of  Philadelphia  over  10 
years  of  age,  more  than  half  are  employed  as  laborers,  servants, 
waiters,  teamsters,  stevedores,  deliverymen  and  porters.  Of 
the  22,535  negro  women,  14,279  are  servants,  4332  laundresses 
and  cleaners,  and  1095  dressmakers.* 

In  order  to  verify  these  generalizations  and  to  afford  a  clearer 
view  of  occupational  conditions  in  the  immediate  sphere  of  our 
study,  an  investigation  was  made  into  the  occupations  of  the 
parents  of  317  pupils  of  the  Stanton  School  comprising  eight 
of  the  sixteen  grammar  classes.  Care  was  taken  to  avoid  dupli- 
cation of  famiUes  and  doubtful  entries  were  satisfactorily  verified 
or  discarded.  This  condition,  combined  with  the  fact  that  the 
proportion  of  colored  children  in  the  upper  grades  is  smaller 
than  in  the  lower,  causes  a  larger  number  of  white  pupils  to  be 
included  in  the  tabulation  than  the  proportions  of  the  races  in 
the  school  as  a  whole  would  warrant.  Furthermore,  the  186 
colored  pupils  in  these  higher  grades  represent  a  finer  selection 
from  among  the  1132  total  colored  enrollment  than  do  the  131 
white  pupils  of  the  318  total  whites. 

In  the  summary  table  where  occupations  are  grouped  by 
classes  and  changed  to  per  cents  it  will  be  noted  that  of  colored 
fathers  67%  are  in  unskilled  and  relatively  insecure  and  unstable 
occupations;  18%  are  skilled  and  less  than  10%  are  engaged  in 
business  or  professions.  Of  white  fathers  only  6%  are  unskilled, 
while  57%  are  in  skilled  trades  and  36%  are  in  business  and  the 


U.  S.  Census,  Occupations,  1910. 


Standard  Conditions 


3] 


professions.  Hence  practically  all  white  fathers  are  in  skilled 
trades  or  business  while  only  one-fourth  of  negro  fathers  are 
thus  engaged. 

The  returns  for  mothers  show  that  58%  of  colored  mothers 
are  at  home  engaged  in  housekeeping.  This  proportion  is  high, 
even  for  the  selected  group  with  which  we  are  dealing.  Many 
colored  mothers  go  out  to  "day's  work"  only  one,  two  or  three 
days  in  the  week,  in  which  case  the  work  is  not  reported  as  a 
regular  occupation.  More  than  one-fourth  of  the  mothers  work 
out  regularly  in  domestic  service  and  11%  are  in  skilled  work, 
mainly  dressmaking.  Of  white  mothers,  90%  are  engaged  at 
home  in  housekeeping  and  3%  are  in  business  at  home.  Less 
than  7%  go  out  to  work  in  skilled  trades,  domestic  service  or 
the  professions. 

Table  VIII 
Summary  of  Occupation  Statistics  of  Parents  of  ^17  Pupils,  Grades  ^-8 


Number  in  Each  Occupa- 
tion Class 

Per  cent  Distribution 

Occupation 
Class 

Fathers 

Mothers 

Fathers 

Mothers 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

c. 

W. 

c. 

Professional 
Business 
Skilled  Labor 
Unskilled  Labor 
Domestic  Service 
Housekeeping 

1 
42 

67 

7 
1 

3 

13 

29 

108 

8 

1 
4 
5 

2 
111 

1 

20 

5 

48 

103 

1 

35 

57 

6 

1 

2 

8 
18 
67 

5 

1 
3 
4 

2 
90 

11 
4 

27 
58 

Totals 

.118 

161 

123 

177 

100 

100 

100 

100 

The  total  number  of  parents  reported  (579)  falls  short  of  the 
possible  total  by  55.  These  are  either  deceased  or  not  hving 
with  the  family.  Of  this  number  25  or  nearly  half  are  colored 
fathers.  This  represents  nearly  one-seventh  of  the  possible 
total  of  186  colored  fathers  and  indicates  that  one  out  of  every 
seven  colored  pupils  in  this  highly  selected  group  is  fatherless. 
In  practically  all  such  cases  the  mother  of  the  family  is  forced 
to  go  out  to  work,  leaving  the  children  at  home  entirely  to  their 
own  resources  or  in  the  care  of  an  aunt  or  aged  grandparent. 
This  condition  is  much  more  prevalent  among  the  families  of 
children  in  the  lower  grades  and  of  compulsory  school  age,  for 
it  is  plain  that  such  circumstances  are  conducive  to  early  with- 
drawal from  school. 


32  School  Adjustment 

The  status  of  negro  employment  indicated  above  only  serves 
to  emphasize  the  generalization  of  Kelly  Miller*  that  "The 
negro  is  compelled  to  loiter  around  the  edges  of  industry." 
His  employment  is  unskilled,  irregular  and  does  not  provide 
sufficiently  sound  economic  basis  for  satisfactory  family  sup- 
port. The  wife  and  children  are  forced  to  eke  out  the  family 
fortunes,  and  the  home  life  is  completely  destroyed.  The 
negro  immigrant  to  the  city  is  unprepared  for  the  exacting 
requirements  of  organized  society  and  for  the  keen  competition 
of  more  efficient  workers.  There  are  no  facilities  for  training 
in  efficiency,  and  the  prejudice  of  the  white  industrial  world  acts 
as  an  effective  barrier.  However  there  are  sufficient  examples 
of  enterprising  negroes  who  have  worked  out  their  own  salvation 
to  point  the  way  to  others  who  would  gain  social  and  economic 
advancement. 

An  investigation  of  the  after-school  activities  of  upper  grade 
pupils  shows  that  as  a  rule  girls  are  not  engaged  in  gainful 
occupations  though  the  daughters  of  working  mothers  are  often 
charged  with  full  care  of  the  household.  Fifty-five  boys,  or 
20%  of  the  total  number  of  cases  investigated  (276),  are  regu- 
larly employed  after  school  hours  and  on  Saturdays,  chiefly  in 
selling  papers,  in  errands  and  in  work  in  stores.  These  boys 
work  after  school  from  one  to  as  much  as  four  or  five  hours 
every  day  and  on  Saturdays  from  two  to  eight  hours  or  more. 
One  half  of  the  total  number  (27  boys)  are  under  14  years  of 
age.  If  we  ehminate  the  eight,  twelve-  and  thirteen-year-old 
news-boys,  the  remaining  19  are  working  illegally.  All  these 
fifty-five  boys  are  making  sacrifices  in  their  school  work  and 
23%  of  them  are  showing  distinctly  unsatisfactory  progress. 

Mortality  and  Health 

While  the  distribution  of  negro  population  with  its  excess  of 
females  and  of  young  people  twenty  to  thirty-five  years  of  age 
tends  to  keep  the  death  rate  lower  than  would  obtain  under 
normal  circumstances,  the  mortality  rates  for  negroes  are  every- 
where higher  than  for  whites.  Some  reason  for  this  condition 
is  to  be  found  in  inadequate  and  unsanitary  housing,  in  the 
sudden  change  of  climate  and  general  living  conditions  incident 


*  Race  Adjustment,  Ch.  VI,  The  City  Negro. 


Standard  Conditions  33 

to  immigration  to  a  northern  city,  in  the  lack  of  proper  regard 
for  personal  hygiene,  wisely  selected  food  and  clothing,  and  in 
the  superstitious  fear  of  hospitals.  Negroes  as  a  whole  are  woe- 
fully ignorant  and  disrespectful  of  laws  of  health.  Vitality 
and  efficiency  are  accordingly  lowered,  attendance  at  work  and 
at  school  becomes  irregular,  and  habits  of  shiftlessness  receive 
firmer  set.  Combine  with  this  the  distrust  of  physicians  and 
the  befief  in  'home  remedies',  and  one  important  cause  of  gen- 
eral inefficiency  is  revealed. 

The  school  physician  reports  many  minor  defects  among 
pupils  and  suggests  treatment,  but  not  more  than  one-fourth 
of  such  cases  are  treated,  even  with  the  most  energetic,  untiring 
prodding  and  assistance  on  the  part  of  the  school  nurse.  Many 
such  uncorrected  defects  are  direct  causes  of  unsuccessful  school 
work,  as  are  similar  defects  in  older  persons  direct  causes  of 
their  inefficiency.  Not  until  the  negro  has  been  trained  in  the 
exercise  of  proper  health  habits  can  we  expect  to  note  any  great 
increase  in  efficiency  or  decrease  in  death  rate. 

Home  Life 

The  rapid  influx  of  negroes  to  the  city,  their  congestion  in 
more  or  less  definitely  limited  sections,  unsanitary  housing, 
low  wages,  high  rents,  lodgers,  working  mothers,  and  children 
left  to  care  for  themselves — all  these  influences  tend  to  dis- 
rupt the  recent  and  only  partially  organized  family  life  of  the 
negro.  In  homes  of  the  better  class  there  is  a  refined  and  pleas- 
ant family  life,  children  are  well  cared  for  and  everything  possible 
done  for  their  happiness  and  proper  development.  Even  here 
there  is  a  tendency  to  let  the  communal  church  and  society  life 
trespass  upon  the  home,  and  over-indulgence  in  moving  pictures 
is  all  too  common.  In  families  broken  by  the  absence  of  a  father, 
by  the  necessity  for  the  mother  to  go  out  to  work,  by  the  pres- 
ence of  lodgers  and  by  the  inadequacy  of  housing  facilities, 
there  is  no  true  home  life.  The  members  of  such  families 
mingle  in  the  larger  social  life  of  the  street  with  its  baneful  influ- 
ences. It  is  folly  to  expect  children  under  such  conditions  to 
have  the  incentive,  the  repose  or  the  seclusion  necessary  to  ade- 
quate preparation  of  school  work.  They  live  in  the  streets 
late  into  the  night  and  some  indeed  frequently  spend  the  whole 
night  there.     Morbidly  exciting  movies  combine  their  potent 


34  School  Adjustment 

influence  with  that  of  the  street  to  turn  thoughts  toward  immor- 
ahty  and  crime. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  there  is  the  necessity  for  mothers  to  go 
out  to  work  and  to  keep  lodgers,  but  it  is  still  more  unfortunate 
that  in  many  cases  this  condition  tends  to  persist  long  after  the 
necessity  has  passed.  Many  families  are  in  positions  to  live 
comfortably  in  a  modest  way  without  the  economic  assistance  of 
lodgers  or  working  mothers  but  they  have  become  habituated 
to  the  old  form  of  living  and  do  not  change  when  financial 
conditions  improve.  Thus  many  children  are  unnecessarily 
deprived  of  a  true  home  life  and  its  influences.  "The  mass  of 
the  negro  people  must  be  taught  to  guard  the  home,  to  make  it 
the  center  of  social  life  and  moral  guardianship."* 

As  has  been  indicated,  the  social  life  of  the  negro  is  too  much 
outside  the  home.  It  lacks  organization  and  definiteness  of 
purpose,  conditions  which  can  be  supplied  only  by  a  long,  slow 
process  of  growth  through  social  education  and  group  training. 
These  should  have  their  inception  and  be  permanently  focused 
in  the  public  school  and  community  center.  In  radiating  out 
to  the  entire  community,  the  influence  of  the  school  would  form 
closer  bonds  of  common  interest  between  parent  and  child, 
and  progress  toward  better  conditions  would  then  be  possible 
not  only  for  the  child  in  school  but  for  the  whole  community. 

Racial  Traits 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  racial  traits  of  the  negro  and 
much  of  this  writing,  even  when  purporting  to  be  scientific, 
has  been  deeply  tinged  with  the  element  of  personal  bias  or  has 
been  based  upon  insufficient  and  inadequate  data.  In  a  brief 
treatment  of  the  topic  it  is  difficult  to  abstain  from  the  trite 
generalizations  which  at  first  blush  seem  so  satisfying.  The 
negro  is  represented  to  have  no  virtue,  truth,  honor  or  integrity. 
He  is  indolent,  extravagant,  improvident,  imitative,  super- 
stitious, emotional,  impulsive,  inactive,  superficial,  pleasure- 
loving,  appropriative,  gregariousf  and  so  on  to  the  exhaustion 
of  the  adjectival  vocabulary.  All  of  these  characteristics  are 
present  in  some  classes  of  negroes  and  many  of  them  are  typical 
of  certain  groups,  but  it  is  beside  the  truth  and  entirely  unjust 

*  DuBois,  W.  E.  B.     The  Philadelphia  Negro,  pp.  195-6. 

t  Odum,  Howard  W.     Social  and  Mental  Traits  of  the  Negro,  p.  39. 


Standard  Conditions  35 

as  well  as  unscientific  to  apply  such  terms  generally  to  the 
whole  race.  It  must  be  remembered  always  that  human  beings 
are  human  first  and  races  afterward.  There  is  more  of  human- 
ity than  of  race  in  each  of  us.  Sweeping  generalizations  on  a 
basis  of  race  are  bound  to  carry  injustice  and  fan  the  flames  of 
prejudice  to  such  an  extent  that  superior  achievements  go 
unrecognized  and  hence  ofttimes  die  for  lack  of  proper  encour- 
agement and  sanction.  Considering  the  background  of  negro 
civilization,  his  treatment  during  slavery,  and  the  obstacles 
placed  in  his  way  after  freedom,  the  progress  of  the  race  has 
been  remarkable.  If  it  seems  to  lag,  it  is  because  it  is  compared 
with  a  white  civilization  which  has  been  developing  gradually 
for  many  centuries  in  an  environment  better  suited  to  its  peculiar 
needs. 

Mental  Traits 

With  all  the  diversity  of  the  conclusions  of  such  prominent 
students  of  the  subject  as  Boas,  LeBon,  Hall,  Galton,  Thorn- 
dike,  Wood  worth,  t  there  is  substantial  agreement  on  the  propo- 
sition that  the  negro  is  inferior  to  the  white  in  the  higher  mental 
processes.  This,  however,  cannot  be  attributed  to  smaller 
average  brain  weight  because  of  great  overlapping  and  because 
the  dominant  factor  is  brain  structure  rather  than  weight. 
Knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the  cortical  neurons  has  not  pro- 
gressed to  the  point  of  affording  a  basis  for  sound  generaliza- 
tion. In  his  study  of  the  Psychology  of  the  Negro,  after  an 
analysis  of  the  work  of  more  than  twenty  students  of  psy- 
chology, sociology,  anthropology  and  neurology.  Dr.  G.  O. 
Ferguson,  Jr.,  presents  the  following  conclusions: 

"Instability  of  character  is  ascribed  to  the  negro,  involving  a 
lack  of  foresight,  an  improvidence,  a  lack  of  persistence,  small 
power  of  serious  initiative,  a  tendency  to  be  content  with  immedi- 
ate satisfactions,  deficient  ambition.  But  the  evidence  that 
such  characteristics  constitute  a  true  racial  difference  cannot 
be  called  conclusive,  and  the  psychological  causes  underlying 
them  have  not  been  adequately  investigated.  Along  with  high 
emotionality  and  instability  of  character,  defective  morality  is 
held  to  be  a  negro  characteristic.  This  is  as  subject  to  debate 
as  are  the  other  qualities,  though  it  is  apparently  supported 
by  social  statistics.     It  may  be  that  the  total  circumstances  of 


t  See  Bibliography,  p.  00. 


36  School  Adjustment 

his  life  are  such  as  would  lead  to  immorality  even  were  the 
negro  possessed  of  the  psychic  nature  of  the  white  man. 

"The  evidence  of  experience  and  observation  is  often  wholly 
unscientific  and  worthless,  but  not  always  so.  Strong  and  chang- 
ing emotions,  an  improvident  character  and  a  tendency  to 
immoral  conduct  are  not  unallied.  They  are  all  rooted  in 
uncontrolled  impulse.  And  a  factor  which  may  tend  to 
produce  all  three  is  a  deficient  development  of  the  more  purely 
intellectual  capacities.  Where  the  impUcations  of  ideas  are 
not  apprehended,  where  thought  is  not  lively  and  fertile,  where 
meanings  and  consequences  are  not  grasped,  the  need  for  the 
control  of  impulse  will  not  be  felt.  And  the  demonstrable 
deficiency  of  the  negro  in  intellectual  traits  may  involve  the 
dynamic  deficiencies  which  common  opinion  claims  to  exist. 

"The  available  evidence  indicates  that  in  the  so-called  lower 
traits  there  is  no  great  difference  between  the  negro  and  the 
white.  In  motor  capacity  there  is  probably  no  appreciable 
racial  difference.  In  sense  capacity,  in  perceptive  and  dis- 
criminative ability,  there  is  likewise  a  practical  equality.  It 
is  in  the  central  elaborative  powers  upon  which  thought  more 
directly  depends  that  differences  exist,  not  in  the  simpler  re- 
ceptive and  discharging  functions.  It  seems  as  though  the 
white  type  has  attained  a  level  of  higher  development,  based 
upon  the  common  elementary  capacities,  which  the  negro  has 
not  reached  to  the  same  degree."* 

There  is,  how^ever,  much  weight  of  authority  to  the  opinion 
that  relative  racial  superiority  is  but  a  transient  phase  of  human 
development.  "It  is  hard  to  say  that  in  any  evident  feature  of 
mind  the  negro  differs  characteristically  from  the  white  race."t 
In  his  Social  Evolution,  Benjamin  Kidd  asserts  that  "the 
Negro  child  shows  no  inferiority;  the  deficiencies  of  after-hfe 
are  due  to  a  dwarfing  and  benumbing  environment."!  To  such 
authorities  capacity  is  potential  and  must  be  stimulated  and 
reenforced  by  social  accomplishment  before  it  can  show  great 
achievement.  In  view  of  the  lack  of  convincing  proof  to  the 
contrary,  it  is  with  this  attitude  that  a  democracy  should  under- 
take the  solution  of  the  many  problems  presented  by  racial 
development  and  contacts. 

The  White  Population 

In  the  whole  of  the  above  discussion  only  occasional  mention 

has  been  made  of  the  white  population.     This  apparent  neglect 

*  G.  O.  Ferguson,  Jr.     The  Psychology  of  the  Negro,  pp.  124-5. 
t  Shaler,  N.  F.,  and  Kidd,  B.,  quoted  in  Kelly  Miller's  Rare  Adjustment, 
p.  36. 


Standard  Co7iditions  37 

has  been  due  not  alone  to  the  fact  that  the  white  population 
contributes  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  pupilage  of  the  school 
(Table  I)  but  also  to  the  fact  that,  being  composed  largely  of 
Irish  and  Jewish  stock,  the  white  population  is  representative 
of  average  middle-class  whites.  Special  treatment,  except  in 
certain  cases,  has  therefore  been  regarded  as  unnecessary. 

Legal,  Financial  and  Administrative  Conditions 

The  legal  and  financial  conditions  surrounding  the  school  are 
identical  with  those  of  the  entire  school  system  of  the  city. 
The  Constitution  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  makes  it  incum- 
bent upon  the  legislature  to  provide  public  schools.  The  legis- 
lature through  its  enactments  has  made  provision  for  a  Board 
of  Education  in  the  city  and  has  given  it  large  powers  of  initia- 
tive. This  Board  of  Education  in  its  administration  of  the 
city  school  system  has  exercised  its  initiative  in  the  establish- 
ment of  many  special  forms  of  education  in  order  that  an  ap- 
proach may  be  made  in  the  various  sections  of  the  city  toward 
the  adjustment  of  the  school  to  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  com- 
munity. Financial  limitations,  handed  down  from  the  Legis- 
lature in  the  form  of  meagre  state  appropriations  and  restric- 
tions on  school  millage  and  borrowing  power,  enable  the  Board 
only  partially  to  meet  its  obligation  in  the  way  of  complete 
adjustment  to  progressively  changing  needs.  The  power  of 
tradition,  the  feeling  of  satisfaction  and  even  of  reverence,  on 
the  part  of  unthinking  members  of  the  community,  for  the 
schools  as  they  were  "in  our  day,"  the  limitations  of  antiquated 
school  plants  and  equipment — all  tend  to  obstruct  the  ways  of 
progress  toward  an  immediacy  of  response  to  changing  social 
needs.  The  chief  Umiting  condition  and  the  one  which  tends 
to  set  standards  in  the  others  is  financial.  Since  this  condition 
is  substantially  uniform  throughout  the  city  system  of  which 
the  school  in  question  is  a  unit,  it  may  be  advisable  to  con- 
sider briefly  the  financial  conditions  surrounding  the  entire 
school  system. 

Comparative  School  Costs 

A  comparison  of  expenditures  for  public  schools  in  the  ten 
largest  cities  of  the  United  States  (Table  IX)  shows  that  while 
Philadelphia  is  third  in  population  it  ranks  next  to  last,  both  in  per 


38 


School  Adjustment 


capita  expenditure  for  school  purposes  and  in  the  per  cent  of 
expenditures  for  schools  as  compared  with  amounts  spent  for 
other  municipal  departmental  service. 

Table  IX 

Governmental  Cost  Payments  for  Expenses  of  Schools  (Total  and  per  capita), 

and  per  cent  of  Expense  of  General  Departmental  Service    Devoted  to 

Schools  in  the  Ten  Largest  Cities  of  the  United  States,  1918* 


%  of  Total  Dept. 

No. 

Cities 

Total 

Per  Capita 

Expense  Devoted 
to  Schools 

1 

New  York 

$42,154,138 

$7.35 

28.6 

2 

Chicago 

15,870,152 

6.23 

28.0 

3 

Philadelphia 

8,328,295 

4.80 

22  2 

4 

St.  Louis 

4,657,017 

6.03 

28.6 

5 

Boston 

6,226,167 

8.10 

25.6 

6 

Cleveland 

4,512,966 

6.52 

33.0 

7 

Detroit 

4,568,651 

7.26 

28.3 

8 

Baltimore 

2,417,398 

4.07 

22.0 

9 

Pittsburgh 

4,409,139 

7.52 

29.6 

10 

Los  Angeles 

5,945,976 

10.81 

42.7 

Average 

6.87 

28.9 

*  Financial  Statistics  of  Cities,  1918,  p.  209  et  seq. 

The  average  per  capita  expenditure  for  schools  in  the  ten 
largest  cities  is  shown  to  be  $6.87,  which  is  42.9%  higher  than 
the  per  capita  expenditure  in  Philadelphia  ($4.80).  The  rela- 
tive importance  of  schools  compared  with  other  city  depart- 
ments as  indicated  by  proportionate  amounts  spent  for  schools 
and  for  other  purposes  averages  28.9%  in  the  ten  cities  as 
against  22.2%  in  Philadelphia.  On  both  counts,  then,  of  gross 
per  capita  expenditure  for  schools,  and  on  proportionate  ex- 
penditure for  schools  as  compared  with  that  of  other  depart- 
ments, Philadelphia  should  seek  additional  sources  of  revenue 
for  its  public  schools. 

Still  further  indication  of  the  need  for  Philadelphia  to  secure 
more  adequate  school  funds  is  seen  in  the  amounts  spent  per 
pupil  enrolled  in  the  public  schools  of  the  ten  largest  cities. 
In  Table  X,  school  costs  are  separated  into  maintenance  costs 
and  outlays.  Per  pupil  costs  are  based  on  current  expenses 
and  do  not  include  outlays  for  land,  buildings  and  relatively 
permanent  equipment.  It  will  be  noted  that  again  Phila- 
delphia stands  ninth  in  the  list  of  ten  cities  in  regard  to  the  cost 
per  pupil  in  its  public  schools.     Philadelphia's  annual  per  pupil 


Standard  Condiiions 


39 


expenditure  of  $33.55  falls  short  $10.01  or  22.9%  of  the  aver- 
age per  pupil  expenditure  in  the  ten  largest  cities  (*43.56).  To 
equal  this  average,  Philadelphia  would  have  to  increase  its  ex- 
penditure for  current  expenses  29.8%.  If  this  were  done  the 
yearly  investment  in  public  education  would  still  be  well  below 
that  of  Cleveland,  Pittsburgh,  Boston  and  New  York.  It 
may  be  concluded,  therefore,  that  ample  justification  exists  for 
an  increase  of  at  least  35%  in  the  annual  per  pupil  expenditure 
for  public  education  in  Philadelphia. 

Where  peculiar  need  exists  within  a  particular  social  group, 
where  it  is  advisable  to  afford  opportunities  for  school  work  of 
more  varied  character,  and  where  it  is  desirable  to  provide 
special  types  ol  training,  it  becomes  necessary  to  expend  rela- 

Table  X 

Showing  the  Number  of  Pupils  in  the  Ten  Largest  Cities  in  the    United  States 
and  the  Total  Cost  of  the  Public  Schools,  1917-1018* 


Mainten- 

Outlays, 

Population 

Enrollment 

ance  cost  t 

land,t 

Mainten- 

No. 

Cities 

1910 

of  Pupils 

of  public 
schools 

buildings, 
etc. 

ance  cost 
per  pupil 

1 

New  York 

4,766,883 

909,445 

$42,459,854 

$2,094,980 

$46.69 

2 

Chicago 

2,185,283 

368,225 

16,910,460 

3,693,916 

45.92 

3 

Philadelphia 

1,549,008 

262,691 

8,814,344 

1,244,587 

33.55 

4 

St.  Louis 

687,029 

105,614 

4,732.738 

992,996 

44.81 

5 

Boston 

686,092 

132,848 

6,347,428 

1,058,928 

47.78 

6 

Cleveland 

566,476 

112,319 

5,878,473 

1.425,651 

52.34 

7 

Baltimore 

558,485 

81,631 

2,297,092 

11,491 

28.14 

8 

Pittsburgh 

533,905 

89,830 

4,547,628 

651,441 

50.62 

9 

Detroit 

465,766 

117,812 

4,560,983 

2,056,632 

38.71 

10 

Buffalo 

423,715 

68,631 

3,228,231 

256,865 

47.04 

Average 

43.56 

tively  larger  sums  of  money  per  pupil  enrolled.  Such  inequali- 
ties in  cost  per  pupil  already  exist  within  any  large  school  system 
which  provides  special  training  for  defectives,  vocational  train- 
ing for  a  selected  group,  manual  training  and  household  arts 
for  certain  grades,  and  it  is  necessary  that  such  inequalities 
do  exist  if  the  work  of  the  schools  is  to  be  determined  by  and 
adjusted  to  the  peculiar  needs  of  variant  groups  of  pupils  and  of 
variant  community  conditions.  In  the  particular  unit  school 
under  consideration  here,  it  is  desirable  that  many  kinds  of 


'Statistics  furnished  by  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 

fTotal  Current  Expenses. 

JNot  included  in  preceding  columns. 


40  School  Adjustment 

so-called  special  activity  be  introduced,  that  work  of  a  prac- 
tical nature  relating  to  all  phases  of  social  and  economic  life  be 
emphasized  and  that  constructive  community  activity  be  defi- 
nitely stimulated.  It  seems  entirely  proper  therefore,  to  urge 
that  the  increase  in  per  pupil  expenditure  in  the  school  in  ques- 
tion should  be  at  least  50%  over  present  costs.  That  this 
claim  is  not  extravagant  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  with  such 
an  increase,  the  per  pupil  cost  in  this  school  would  still  only 
equal  that  now  obtaining  in  the  schools  either  of  Cleveland  or 
Pittsburgh. 

It  is  important  to  note  in  connection  with  recommendations 
for  substantial  increases  in  expenditure,  that  91%  of  the  re- 
ceipts of  school  funds  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia  is  derived 
from  local  taxation,  and  only  6%  from  State  appropriations.* 
Pennsylvania's  position  among  the  other  states  is  thirty-seventh 
in  respect  to  the  proportion  of  money  contributed  to  local  school 
funds.  In  the  State  Government  lies  a  source  of  additional 
revenue  to  the  local  school  district  that  should  bear  immediate 
assistance.  An  equalization  of  assessments  on  real  estate  and 
a  moderate  increase  in  the  rate  of  taxation  for  schools  would 
also  add  materially  to  the  local  funds. 

Physical  Conditions — The  Arthur  Building 
Turning  now  to  the  physical  conditions  which  surround  the 
Stanton- Arthur  School,  we  find  a  plant  consisting  of  two  build- 
ings situated  some  four  blocks  apart.  The  Chester  A.  Arthur 
building  erected  in  1886  is  a  three-story  structure  containing 
twelve  regular  classrooms,  two  special  classrooms  and  one 
kindergarten  room  accommodating  two  half-time  classes.  As 
has  been  indicated,  there  are  no  facilities  for  play,  inside  or  out- 
side the  building.  In  a  recent  reorganization  of  this  school, 
negro  teachers  were  assigned  to  the  building,  and  only  negro 
pupils  attend  the  school. 

The  Stanton  Building 
The  Edwin  M.  Stanton  building,  erected  in  1850,  is  a  three- 
story  structure,  six  rooms  on  a  floor  with  no  provision  for  halls 
or  wardrobes.     Rooms  are  separated  by  glass  partitions,  and 
it  is  necessary  for  pupils  to  pass  through  adjoining  classrooms 


*Phila.  Bd.  of  Ed.  Report  1918,  p.  214. 


Standard  Conditions  41 

to  reach  their  own.  This  building,  as  will  be  seen,  is  entirely 
inadequate  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  pupils,  much  less  of  the 
community. 

In  a  large  system  of  schools  the  necessary  uniformity  of 
legal,  financial  and  administrative  conditions  tends  to  bring 
about  a  common  level  of  adjustment  to  general  community 
needs  to  the  partial  exclusion  of  the  finer,  more  immediate 
responses  to  the  pecuhar  requirements  of  a  given  locality.  The 
prescription  of  a  fixed  course  of  study  tends  to  emphasize  uni- 
form educational  requirements.  Even  with  increasing  latitude 
afforded  by  way  of  varying  interpretation  and  stress  of  em- 
phasis, there  is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  teachers  and  prin- 
cipals to  adhere  rather  closely  to  prescribed  courses  often  to 
the  neglect  of  desirable  adjustments  to  distinctly  local  needs 
and  conditions. 

Summary 

1.  The  school  as  an  institution  of  society  must  maintain  an 
immediacy  of  response  to  social  needs. 

2.  The  immediate  community  served  by  the  Stanton- Arthur 
School  contains  a  large  proportion  of  negroes. 

3.  The  population  of  the  30th  ward,  in  which  the  school  is 
located,  was  34%  negro  in  1910  and  approximately  50%  negro 
in  1919. 

4.  Industrial  expansion  has  caused  a  large  recent  immigra- 
tion of  negroes  to  the  section  and  an  exodus  of  whites. 

5.  The  negro  population  of  Philadelphia  is  increasing  at  more 
than  twice  the  rate  of  the  white  population. 

6.  The  school  census  enumeration  of  children  six  to  sixteen 
years  of  age  shows  the  number  of  negro  children  to  be  increas- 
ing proportionately  three  times  as  rapidly  as  the  number  of 
white  children. 

7.  The  notable  excess  of  females  in  the  negro  population  pre- 
sents difficult  social  and  moral  problems. 

8.  The  negro  population  is  characterized  by  a  large  proportion 
of  young  people  (20-44  years)  and  correspondingly  a  small 
proportion  of  children. 

9.  The  marital  condition  of  the  negro  population  shows  a 
large  proportion  of  single  men,  widows  and  separated.  This 
condition  has  important  moral  significance. 


42  School  Adjustment 

10.  Illiteracy  among  negroes  in  the  city  is  not  exceptionally 
high  but  the  degree  of  education  is  uniformly  low. 

11.  The  negro  population  is  unstable.  More  than  one-half 
of  the  negroes  of  Philadelphia  are  in  no  way  a  product  of  the 
city. 

12.  Much  of  the  housing  of  Philadelphia  negroes  is  unsanitary 
and  congested. 

13.  The  lodger  evil  is  acute,  disturbing  the  privacy  and 
morality  of  the  family. 

14.  A  higher  proportion  of  negroes  than  whites  is  gain- 
fully employed.  Disrupted  home  life  is  indicated  by  employ- 
ment outside  the  home  of  58.3%  of  negro  females. 

15.  Negro  employments  are,  in  the  main,  confined  to  labor- 
ing, and  domestic  and  personal  service. 

16.  Of  the  negro  fathers  of  Stanton  school  children,  67%  are 
unskilled;  of  white  fathers  only  7%  are  unskilled. 

17.  Many  negro  mothers  of  Stanton  school  children  go  out  to 
work,  leaving  the  children  to  care  for  themselves. 

18.  Of  every  five  boys  in  Grades  5-8,  one  is  employed  after 
school  and  on  Saturdays. 

19.  Disregard  for  the  laws  of  hygiene  causes  much  illness  and 
inefficiency. 

20.  Social  and  economic  conditions  tend  to  disrupt  negro 
family  life. 

21.  Social  fife  of  the  negro  is  too  much  outside  the  home. 

22.  Studies  of  the  psychology  of  the  negro  point  to  a  some- 
what lower  average  mentality,  less  subject  to  the  inhibitions 
of  higher  mental  powers. 

23.  The  white  population  of  the  section  under  consideration 
is  mainly  of  Irish  and  Jewish  extraction. 

24.  Philadelphia  ranks  ninth  among  the  ten  largest  cities 
of  the  United  States  in : 

(1)  Per  capita  expenditure  for  schools. 

(2)  Proportion  spent  for  schools  as  compared  with  other 
municipal  departments. 

(3)  Per  pupil  expenditure. 

25.  Increase  in  expenditure  necessary: 

(1)  To  approximate  expenditures  in  other  cities. 

(2)  To  provide  efficient  training. 

(3)  To  meet  individual  and  community  needs. 


Stajidard  Conditions  43 

26.  The  school  plant  consists  of  two  buildings, — the  Stanton 
building  is  entirely  inadequate  and  unsafe;  the  Arthur  build- 
ing provides  only  the  barest  necessities  for  classroom  instruc- 
tion. 

27.  Uniform  legal,  financial  and  administrative  conditions, 
while  permitting  some  latitude,  tend  to  obstruct  complete 
adjustment  to  peculiarly  local  needs. 


CHAPTER  III 

SCHOOL  PUPILAGE 

The  Stanton-Arthur  School  comprises  thirty-four  elementary 
divisions  or  classes  and  has  an  average  pupilage  of  1450.  As 
the  name  indicates,  the  school  is  housed  in  two  buildings  which 
originally  accommodated  distinct  organizations.  Since  these 
buildings  are  located  four  blocks  apart  it  would  appear  that 
pupils  would  be  drawn  from  a  larger  radius  because  of  the  sepa- 
ration. This  is  not  the  case,  however,  because  the  Arthur 
building  has  always  been  a  primary  school  and  the  Stanton 
has  contained  only  grammar  grades.  More  recently,  after  the 
■combination  of  the  two  schools  and  the  great  influx  of  negro 
population  to  the  district  it  was  found  advisable  to  employ 
negro  teachers  in  the  Arthur  building,  which  already  had  a 
pupilage  85%  negro.  This  made  necessary  the  provision  of 
primary  grades  in  the  Stanton  building  so  that  at  present  there 
are  accommodations  for  negro  pupils  in  grades  1  to  5  in  the 
Arthur  building  and  for  both  races  in  all  elementary  grades 
in  the  Stanton  building. 

School  Organization 
For  the  entire  school  organization  the  number  of  classes  in 
each  grade  and  the  average  number  belonging  and  in  attend- 
ance during  June,  1919,  are  given  in  Table  XL 

Table  XI 

Classification,  Average  Enrollment  and  Average  Attendance — June,  1919 

Grade                          No.  of  Average  Enrollment  Average  Attendance 

Classes  Male  Female  Total  Male  Female  Total 

8 3  46          68  114  37        61          98 

7 4  72    106  178  58    84    142 

6 4  76    97  173  63    79    142 

5 5  90    104  194  70    81    151 

4 3  71     77  148  61    66    127 

3 3  65    76  141  53    64    117 

2 4  86    91  177  68    76    144 

1 4  102    122  224  77    89    166 

Kindergarten 2  25    39  64  15    28     43 

Orthogenic  Backward.  1  10     8  18  8     7     15 

Orthogenic  Adjustment  1  9     10  19  6    8     14 

Total 34     652    798   1450    516   643   1159* 

*  Average  attendance  for  the  year  exceeds  1200. 

44 


Pupilage  45 

It  will  be  noted  here  that  enrollment  and  attendance  in  the 
grammar  grades  are  unnaturally  high.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  pupils  are  admitted  from  neighboring  schools  into  Grades  5 
and  7.  Since  all  the  pupils  admitted  from  other  schools  into 
the  5th  Grade  are  colored  and  practically  all  those  so  admitted 
to  the  7th  Grade  are  white,  the  proportion  of  colored  pupils  in 
Grades  5  and  6  is  exceptionally  high,  running  as  high  as  85% 
in  Grade  6.  The  large  withdrawal  of  colored  pupils  in  Grades  6 
and  7  and  the  admission  of  new  white  pupils  in  Grade  7  cause 
the  proportion  of  colored  pupils  to  be  reduced  to  55%  in  the 
upper  grades.  As  was  seen  in  Table  I,  the  proportion  of  col- 
ored pupils  in  the  entire  school  organization  is  78.1%.  Since 
the  recent  reorganization,  colored  pupils  make  up  100%  of  the 
Arthur  School  pupilage  and  59%  of  the  Stanton. 

Analysis  of  School  Census 

An  indication  of  the  extent  to  which  the  Stanton-Arthur 
School  meets  the  educational  needs  of  its  immediate  community 
may  be  found  in  a  study  of  the  returns  of  the  school  census 
made  in  June,  1919,  by  the  Department  of  Compulsory  Edu- 
cation. The  census  enumerates  all  children  between  the  ages  of 
6  and  16  years  and  gives  data  as  to  school  attendance  and  em- 
ployment. The  enumeration  is  made  by  census  blocks  each 
comprising  two  city  residence  blocks.  The  data  for  each  of 
twenty-four  of  these  census  blocks  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  school  were  summarized  and  tabulated  in  squares  corre- 
sponding to  the  geographical  location  of  the  block.  It  will  be 
seen  then  that  Table  XII  is  at  once  a  map  of  the  school  district 
and  a  residence  plot  of  the  pupils  of  the  Stanton-Arthur  School. 
Besides  this  it  furnishes  information  as  to  racial  proportions  by 
blocks  as  well  as  the  number  of  children  who  attend  the  public 
schools  located  either  in  or  out  of  the  district.  There  is  also 
indicated  the  number  of  pupils  attending  parochial  and  private 
schools,  those  not  enrolled  and  those  employed. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  in  the 
table  represent  streets  as  indicated,  and  that  the  tabulation 
within  each  block  represents  the  status  of  the  children  of  school 
age  resident  within  the  block.  The  census  blocks  are  num- 
bered for  identification  with  the  same  numbers  used  by  the 
School  Census  Bureau.     Taking  census  block  No.  67  for  ex- 


46 


School  Adjustment 


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Pupilage  47 

ample,  we  may  read  that  in  the  section  from  20th  to  22nd  Sts. 
and  Carpenter  St.  to  Washington  Ave.  there  are  102  children 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  16.  Seventy-four  of  these  are  col- 
ored. Of  the  twenty-eight  white  children,  10  attend  the  Stan- 
ton School,  2  attend  other  public  schools,  13  go  to  parochial 
schools,  2  are  not  enrolled  and  one  is  employed.  It  will  be 
noted  that  more  of  these  white  children  attend  parochial  school 
than  public,  a  condition  which  is  also  found  to  exist  in  blocks 
60,  56,  47,  61,  55,  51,  63,  53,  44.  This  is  a  total  of  ten  blocks 
or  nearly  half  of  the  23  blocks  for  which  we  have  data.  Look- 
ing to  the  total  for  the  entire  section  we  find  that  226  white 
pupils  attend  the  Stanton  School,  367  attend  parochial  schools. 
Causes  for  this  condition  are  to  be  found  in  the  religious  per- 
suasion of  the  white  population  of  Irish  parentage;  in  the  prox- 
imity of  parochial  schools,  two  of  which  are  located  in  blocks  56 
and  60  respectively;  in  the  fact  that  these  parochial  schools 
serve  white  pupils  only;  and  in  the  fact  that  the  Stanton- Arthur 
School  has  so  high  a  proportion  of  colored  pupils. 

Of  the  209  white  pupils  who  attend  other  public  schools 
approximately  one-fourth  are  High  School  pupils;  the  others 
go  long  distances  to  elementary  schools  having  predominantly 
white  pupilage. 

Returning  now  to  block  67  we  find  that  of  the  total  of  74 
colored  pupils,  58  attend  the  Stanton-Arthur  and  only  9  attend 
other  public  schools.  A  -larger  proportion  of  colored  children 
attends  the  Stanton- Arthur  than  other  schools  in  15  blocks, 
Nos.  67,  60,  56,  49,  47,  40,  66,  61,  55,  50,  46,  41,  65,  62,  54.  In 
the  remaining  blocks  to  the  lower  right  of  the  plot  there  is  a 
primary  school  located  in  block  44  and  a  complete  elementary 
school  one  square  north  of  block  43.  Both  of  these  schools 
are  for  colored  children  only.  In  the  grand  totals  we  find  that 
even  with  the  presence  in  the  section  of  these  two  schools  for 
colored  pupils  the  ratio  of  children  in  other  pubHc  schools  to 
children  in  the  Stanton-Arthur  School  is  lower  for  colored 
pupils  (552  to  799  or  69%)  than  for  white  pupils  (209  to  226  or 
93%).  If  this  calculation  were  based  on  the  total  number  of 
pupils  attending  any  school  other  than  the  Stanton-Arthur  we 
would  have  the  following: 


48  School  Adjustment 

Table  XIII 
Proportionate  Enrollment  (by  Race)  in  Stanton-Arthur  and  Other  Schools  in 

Section  Studied 

White        Negro         Total 

1.  Stanton-Arthur  School 226  799  1025 

2.  All  other  schools 590  590  1180 

It  will  be  seen  therefore  that  for  every  2  white  pupils  who  at- 
tend the  Stanton-Arthur  School,  5  attend  other  schools,  while, 
with  the  presence  of  other  colored  schools  in  and  near  the  sec- 
tion, only  three-fourths  as  many  negro  pupils  go  to  all  other 
schools  as  to  the  Stanton-Arthur.  This  situation  is  still  further 
emphasized  on  comparison  of  the  per  cents  of  total  pupilage 
in  the  section  that  attend  the  Stanton- Arthur  School. 

Table  XIV 

School  Census  and  Stanton-Arthur  Enrollment  {by  Race) 

White  Negro 

Total  number  of  children  6-16  in  section 900  1511 

Number  attending  Stanton-Arthur  School 226  799 

Per  cent  attending  Stanton-Arthur  School 25. 1  53 

Table  XIV  shows  that  25.1%  of  white  and  53.1%  of  colored 
children  in  the  section  attend  the  Stanton-Arthur  School. 
Here  may  be  seen  an  indication  that  the  school,  while  pur- 
porting to  meet  the  needs  of  the  entire  community,  is  in  reahty 
largely  limited  in  its  service  to  that  portion  of  the  community 
which  is  colored.  Though  supported  by  public  taxation  for 
the  perpetuation  of  democracy,  the  school  fails  to  reach  a  large 
majority  of  the  white  pupils  of  the  district.  Presumably  the 
school  is  prepared  to  meet  the  needs  of  this  portion  of  the  popu- 
lation; practically  it  is  not  doing  so.  In  such  a  situation  it 
would  seem  advisable  to  effect  radical  readjustments  in  order 
that  the  public  school  may  come  into  its  own. 

This  study  of  twenty-four  census  blocks  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
school  shows  that  but  70%  of  the  school's  enrollment  is  drawn 
from  its  immediate  neighborhood. 

Table  XV 
Stanton-Arthur  Enrollment  Residing  in  Section  Studied 

White         Negro  Total 

Total  Stanton-Arthur  enrollment 318  1132  1450 

Enrolhnent  from  24  blocks 226  799  1025 

Per  cent  enrollment  from  24  blocks 71.0  70. 6  70. 7 

The  92  white  pupils  who  attend  the  school  from  without  the 
section  studied  are  in  large  measure  pupils  of  grades  7  and  8 


Pupilage  49 

who  live  west  of  22ncl  Street  and  are  forced  to  travel  great 
distances  to  the  school  on  account  of  the  lack  of  school  facilities 
in  their  neighborhood.  Many  of  these  pupils  attend  the  school 
unwillingly  because  of  its  distance  from  their  homes  as  well  as 
because  of  the  large  proportion  of  colored  pupils.  A  study  of 
the  complete  residence  plot  shows  that  most  of  the  333  colored 
pupils  who  come  from  without  this  section,  reside  in  the  locali- 
ties north  and  south  of  the  eastern  end  of  the  census  section 
studied.  These  sections  are  served  by  schools  with  entirely 
negro  pupilage  and  teaching  forces.  Some  negro  parents  object 
to  this  condition,  desiring  their  children  to  be  taught  by  white 
teachers  and  to  associate  with  white  pupils.  Accordingly  these 
children  each  day  pass  the  other  schools  to  attend  the  Stanton. 
On  the  other  hand  there  are  a  few  colored  pupils  who  come  great 
distances  because  the  schools  in  their  neighborhoods  are  of 
predominantly  white  pupilage  and  these  colored  children  feel 
more  comfortable  in  association  with  children  of  their  own 
race.  It  is  seen  then  that  white  pupils  from  outside  the  dis- 
trict attend  the  school  because  of  inadequate  facilities  in  their 
own  section,  while  colored  pupils  come  great  distances  to  a 
school  which  more  fully  meets  their  needs  as  they  sense  them. 

Pupil  Turn-Over 

Some  idea  of  the  instabihty  of  the  population  of  the  section 
under  consideration  was  afforded  in  the  study  of  social  condi- 
tions in  the  previous  chapter.  This  situation  is  reflected  in  the 
constantly  changing  pupilage  of  the  school.  In  Table  XVI 
is  presented  a  summary  of  admissions  and  dismissals  by  months 
for  the  school  year  1918-19. 

Beginning  with  an  original  enrollment  in  September,  1918,  of 
1387  pupils,  it  will  be  seen  from  the  totals  that  749  pupils  were 
admitted  during  the  year  for  the  causes  noted.  During  the 
same  period  652  pupils  were  dismissed.  The  total  of  admissions 
and  dismissals  during  the  year  aggregates  1401,  a  number  larger 
than  the  original  pupilage.  Changes  in  enrollment  in  the  first 
and  last  months  of  each  semester  consist  largely  of  promotions, 
transfers  and  original  admissions  to  school,  all  of  which  may 
be  considered  natural,  not  affecting  in  any  way  the  normal 
progress  of  school  work.  If  we  combine  all  admissions  and  dis- 
missals for  the  months  of  September,  January,  February  and 


60 


School  Adjustment 


June,  we  get  528  admissions  and  351  dismissals,  a  total  of  879. 
Subtracting  this  sum  from  the  aggregate  change  in  enrollment 
(1401)  we  get  522  admissions  and  dismissals  occurring  during 
the  term.  This  sum  is  37.6%  of  the  original  enrollment  of 
1387  and  indicates  a  shifting  of  pupilage  far  too  extensive  to 
permit  of  effective  work.  Indeed,  if  we  consider  only  the  ad- 
missions in  these  middle  months  of  the  term,  there  is  a  total 
of  221.  Approximately  one-sixth  of  the  enrollment  at  any 
given  time,  then,  is  made  up  of  pupils  who  have  entered  the 
school  during  the  progress  of  class  work.     Some  of  these  are 

Table  XVI 
Changes  in  Enrollment — Stanton-Arthur  School — Sept.,  1918-June,  1919 


Admissions 

Dismissals 

fl 

CO 

m 

Months 

.2 

o 

C/3 

CD 

of 

a 
o 

03 

03 

a 
o 

3 
o3 

Term 

>'''S 

>>^ 

>>! 

'o^ 

>>'"S 

>.« 

go 

M| 

W  g 

m^ 

f^fe 

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«i 

m| 

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1 

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ti; 

tH 

Q^ 

■^ 

o 

h 

fc4 

-kj 

O 

Oh 

H 

Pi 

o 

H 

(1h 

H 

o 

Eh 

Sept.,  1918 

69 

212 

54 

61 

Oct. 

11 

4 

28 

8 

24 

Nov. 

12 

1 

21 

24 

45 

Dec. 

12 

2 

22 

16 

46 

Jan.,  1919 

61 

20 

7 

10 

43 

7 

60 

Feb. 

23 

11 

34 

34 

45 

Mar. 

17 

12 

21 

10 

55 

Apr. 

11 

3 

20 

8 

22 

May 

8 

6 

10 

15 

31 

June 

77 

1 

3 

33 

11 

Totals 

138 

184 

46 

381 

749 

76 

176 

400 

652 

transferred  from  other  schools,  some  are  readmissions  of  pupils 
who  have  previously  left  the  city  school  system,  but  more  than 
half  (122)  are  new  enrollments  constituted  largely  of  colored 
children  newly  arrived  from  the  South.  All  mid-term  admissions 
require  individual  adjustments  in  order  to  make  satisfactory 
progress,  but  the  pupil  from  the  South  always  presents  evidences 
of  a  lack  of  educational  opportunity.  He  is  over  age  and  under 
grade  to  an  extreme  and  demands  very  special  treatment.  It 
is  impossible  to  do  him  justice  in  a  regular  class. 

Of  the  large  number  of  pupils  who  left  the  school  during  the 
year  (652),  seventy-six  were  promoted  to  other  schools,  176  were 
transferred  to  other  Philadelphia  schools  and  400  entirely  severed 


Pupilage  51 

connection  with  the  system.  Each  one  of  these  400  cases  was 
investigated  by  the  Compulsory  Attendance  Officer  to  ascer- 
tain the  cause  of  leaving  school.  It  will  be  noted  in  Table  XVII 
where  these  cases  are  distributed  by  causes  that  204,  or  more 
than  half  the  dismissals  were  caused  by  removal  from  the  city, 
and  110,  or  more  than  one-third,  were  pupils  not  yet  8  years  of 
age  or  who  were  over  16  years. 

Attendance 

Social  conditions,  previously  described,  very  naturally  lead 
to  irregularity  in  attendance  at  school.     While  the  attendance 
at  the  Stanton-Arthur  School  is  only  four  points  below  the 
percentage  for  the  city  as  a  whole  (86.8%)  it  is  so  as  the  result 
of  constant  watchfulness  and  an  inordinate  amount  of  effort 
on  the  part  of  teachers  on  the  one  hand  and  of  compulsory 
attendance  officers  on  the  other.     In  Table  XVII  are  summar- 
ized the  results  of  investigations  by  attendance  officers  showing 
that  of  the  510  cases  of  lawful  absence,  214  were  due  to  illness 
of  the  child  and  72  to  illness  in  the  family.     There  were  513 
cases  of  illegal  absence  and  it  is  significant  that  62%  of  these 
cases  (317)  were  due  to  the  indifference  of  parents.     More  than 
one-fourth  of  the  cases  were  caused   by  truancy.     These  138 
cases  of  truancy  by  no  means  represent  the  total  truancy  for 
the  year.     Cases  are  not  reported  until  there  have  been  six 
unexcused  absences  and  ofttimes  even  when  a  child  has  this 
number,  he  is  not  reported.     If  the  absences  have  been  widely 
scattered,  if  the  child  returns  to  school  after  the  report  has 
been  sent  in  or  if  there  are  many  more  urgent  cases,  the  report  is 
likely  to  be  held  over  till  some  future  time.     Of  the  513  cases 
of  unlawful  absence  investigated  it  will  be  noted  that  174  pre- 
liminary notices  or  warnings  of  prosecution  were  served  and  that 
55  parents  were  actually  prosecuted  because  of  their  indiffer- 
ence or  neglect  in  the  matter  of  the  attendance  of  their  children 
at  school.     These  measures  are  final  resorts  and  are  in  most 
cases  preceded  by  interviews  with  the  principal  of  the  school, 
the  attendance  officer  and  the  attendance  supervisor.     Further 
evidence  of  indifference  may  be  noted  in  the  high  percentage 
of  tardiness  on  the  part  of  children.     Much  of  this  late  attend- 
ance at  school  is  due  entirely  to  the  indifference  of  parents 
and  is  often  acknowledged  by  them  without  the  least  concern. 


52 


School  Adjustment 


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Pupilage 


53 


Absence  and  Non-Promotion 

Some  indication  of  the  effects  of  irregular  attendance  may 

be  seen   in   the   relation   of   absence   to   non-promotion.     The 

investigation  covers  the  period  from  February  1  to  May  31, 

1919,  during  which  time  the  school  was  in  session  152  times. 

Table  XVIII 

Absence  of  Non-Promoted  Pupils 

February  1  to  May  31 — loz  Sessions 


Sessions  Absent 

Grade 

Total 

0-9 

10-19 

20-29 

30-39 

40-49 

50-59 

60  + 

8 

18 

11 

2 

2 

2 

1 

36 

7 

10 

8 

7 

6 

2 

3 

2 

38 

6 

14 

8 

8 

3 

1 

4 

5 

43 

5 

9 

9 

7 

3 

3 

5 

36 

4 

8 

11 

5 

4 

1 

2 

2 

33 

3 

10 

5 

3 

3 

4 

2 

1 

28 

2 

12 

11 

9 

5 

2 

1 

2 

42 

1 

10 

15 

17 

10 

9 

6 

20 

87 

Total 

91 

78 

58 

36 

21 

21 

38 

343 

Per  cent. 

26.5 

22.8 

16.9 

10.5 

6.1 

6.1 

11.1 

100% 

In  Table  XVIII  are  presented  the  frequencies  of  various  de- 
grees of  absence  for  pupils  who  failed  of  promotion  in  June, 
1919.  It  will  be  noted  that  failures  are  fairly  evenly  distributed 
through  the  grades  except  in  Grade  I  where  the  number  of 
failures  is  more  than  twice  as  many  as  in  any  other  grade. 
This  large  number  of  failures  in  Grade  I  is  the  direct  result  of 
irregular  attendance,  71%  of  the  87  failures  in  this  grade  having 
been  absent  20  sessions  or  more.  Of  the  thirty-eight  cases  of 
excessive  absence  (60  sessions  or  more)  twenty,  or  more  than 
half,  are  contributed  by  this  grade  alone.  169  of  the  total 
343  pupils  were  absent  less  than  20  sessions  and  174  more  than 
20  sessions.  Hence  over  one-half  of  the  pupils  who  failed  of 
promotion  had  been  absent  more  than  20  of  the  152  sessions 
and  nearly  one-fourth  of  them  were  absent  40  sessions  or  more. 
Absences  of  20  sessions  or  less  may  be  of  little  consequence  to 
the  successful  pursuance  of  class  work  if  the  pupil  concerned 
will  diligently  apply  himself  on  his  return  to  make  up  the  work 
that  was  lost.  However,  where  this  is  neglected,  as  is  most 
often  the  case,  and  where  large  classes  make  it  impossible  for 
teachers  to  give  the  individual  attention  necessary  for  over- 


54 


School  Adjust ment 


coming  difficulties  incident  to  such  absence,  present  instruction 
is  deprived  of  its  proper  foundation.  Very  soon  pupils  find 
themselves  beyond  their  depth,  lessons  become  'hard,'  and, 
with  the  stimulus  of  success  removed,  the  entire  school  activity 
of  the  pupil  becomes  an  unprofitable,  purposeless  task  which 
culminates  in  non-promotion. 

Age-Grade  Statistics 

Probably  the  most  fruitful  study  of  pupil  statistics  is  that 
which  concerns  age-grade  and  progress  status.  The  most  re- 
cent tabulation  of  age-grade  statistics  for  the  entire  city  system 

Table  XIX 
Distribution  in  the  Grades  by  Ages  of  All  Piipils  in  Actual  Attendance  October  3,  1917 


Stanton-Arthur  Schoo 

Above  Normal  Age 

Grade 

Age  in  Years  on  September  First 

Total 

Sex 

S.-A.  School 

City  % 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

Number 

% 

8 

3 

13 

13 

10 

3 

42 

13 

31.0 

17.9 

7 

6 

23 

20 

10 

6 

1 

65 

17 

26.2 

23.8 

6 

5 

19 

22 

16 

11 

7 

2 

82 

36 

43.9 

39.2 

5 

7 

14 

21 

23 

10 

5 

4 

84 

42 

50.0 

40.2 

Male 

4 

5 

12 

16 

9 

8 

2 

2 

2 

55 

23 

41.8 

36.8 

3 

1 

30 

20 

12 

8 

4 

1 

1 

77 

26 

33.8 

30.6 

2 

1 

24 

16 

7 

2 

1 

1 

51 

11 

21.6 

22.9 

1 

Total 

18 

26 

28 

11 

6 

2 

2 

92 

21 

22.8 

10.8 

18 

26 

53 

61 

52 

50 

65 

84 

62 

42 

29 

6 

548 

189 

34.5 

27.7 

8 

3 

10 

26 

14 

4 

2 

1 

59 

21 

35.6 

18.3 

7 

6 

30 

28 

18 

17 

4 

1 

1 

105 

41 

39.0 

24.1 

6 

1 

6 

18 

34 

21 

19 

13 

4 

1 

117 

58 

49.6 

35.8 

5 

9 

22 

16 

21 

17 

11 

3 

1 

1 

101 

54 

53.5 

36.4 

4 

5 

20 

12 

9 

4 

4 

7 

61 

24 

39.3 

32.3 

Female 

3 

5 

17 

26 

13 

8 

2 

71 

23 

32.4 

26.7 

2 

21 

22 

16 

4 

1 

1 

65 

22 

33.8 

19.0 

1 
Total 

11 

44 

28 

3 

3 

1 

90 

7 

7.8 

9.3 

11 

44 

54 

47 

75 

57 

59 

95 

80 

80 

47 

13 

5 

2 

669 

250 

37.4 

25.1 

Grand 

Total 

1217 

439 

36.1 

26.4 

'  Normal  Age'  for  each  grade  is  indicated  by  heavy  type. 

is  that  showing  the  distribution  in  the  grades  of  all  pupils  in 
actual  attendance  on  October  3,  1917.  In  order  to  make  these 
figures  a  basis  for  comparison,  the  distribution  for  the  Stanton- 
Arthur  School  on  that  date,  together  with  the  city  totals,  is 
given  in  Table  XIX. 


Pupilage 


55 


It  will  be  noted  that  normal  age  for  each  grade  covers  a  span  of 
two  years.  The  normal  age  for  entering  school  is  six  years 
but  the  compulsory  attendance  law  of  the  State  does  not  be- 
come operative  until  a  child  reaches  eight  years  of  age.  Hence, 
if  the  two-year  span  is  considered  normal  for  Grade  I,  it  must 
be  continued  up  through  the  grades.  However,  since  six-year 
and  even  five  and  one-half  year-old  initial  entrants  are  in  the 
great  majority,  this  two-year  span  conceals  a  large  amount  of 
slow  progress  through  the  grades.  Notwithstanding  this  fact 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  in  every  grade  pupils  who  are 
from  one  to  six  years  over-age.  These  over-age  pupils  con- 
stitute 34.5%  of  the  boys  and  37.4%  of  the  girls.     Four  hundred 

Table  XX 
Per  Cents  of  Over-Ageness  by  Race  in  School  and  City 


Grade 

Stanton-Arthur  School 

City 

Male 

School 

Totals 

Negro 

White 

Totals 

8 

50.0 

16.7 

31.0 

17.9 

7 

39.3 

16.2 

26.2 

23.8 

6 

53.8 

26.7 

43.9 

39.2 

5 

58.5 

21.1 

50.0 

40.2 

4 

45.0 

33.3 

41.8 

36.8 

3 

44.2 

12.0 

33.8 

30.6 

2 

25.0 

13.3 

21.6 

22.9 

1 

Total 

24.4 

14.3 

22.8 

10.8 

42.0 

19.0 

34.5 

27.7 

8 

45.7 

20.8 

35.6 

18.3 

7 

50.0 

18.9 

39.0 

24.1 

Female 

6 

57.2 

23.1 

49.6 

35.8 

5 

57.5 

28.6 

53.5 

36.4 

4 

46.7 

18.8 

39.3 

32.3 

3 

36.2 

15.4 

32.4 

26.7 

2 

35.7 

22.2 

33.8 

19.0 

1 
Total 

9.1 

7.8 

9.3 

42.7 

19.1 

37.4 

25.1 

Grand 

Total 

42.4 

19.0 

36.1 

26.4 

thirty-nine  or  36.1%  of  the  total  of  1217  pupils  are  above  nor- 
mal age.  This  per  cent  of  over-ageness  is  seen  to  be  higher 
than  that  for  the  entire  city,  figures  for  which  are  given  in 
the  column  to  the  extreme  right  of  the  table.  The  city  system 
shows  26.4%  over-ageness;  the  Stanton-Arthur  School  shows 
36.1%.     If  the   city   progiess  is  taken  as  a  standard   attain- 


56 


School  Adjustment 


ment,  then  the  school  under  consideration  is  faUing  short  of 
that  attainment  to  a  degree  that  requires  explanation.  This 
explanation  may  be  found,  in  part,  in  what  has  already  been 
indicated  of  the  character  and  social  condition  of  the  pupilage 
of  the  school.  To  show  the  effect  of  this  condition,  the  figures 
of  Table  XIX  have  been  redistributed  on  a  basis  of  race. 

Table  XX  shows  the  per  cents  of  over-ageness  among  negro 
and  white  pupils,  boys  and  girls  separately.  With  these  figures 
are  represented  the  per  cents  for  the  city  and  for  the  school  as 
a  whole. 

It  will  be  seen  here  that  the  high  per  cent  of  over-ageness 
in  the  Stanton-Arthur  School  is  caused  entirely  by  the  negro 
pupils  who  show  42%  over-age  for  boys  and  42.7%  for  girls  as 
against  19%  and  19.1%  for  white  pupils.  White  pupilage  is 
well  in  advance  of  the  city  over-ageness  while  the  negro  pupils 
show  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  over-ageness  as  is  shown 
by   the  whites.     The   negro   children   comprise   72.8%   of   the 

Table  XXI 
Causes  of  Retardation  of  Pupils  Three  Years  or  More  Over-age  for  Grade 


Causes  of  Retardation 

Totals 

Grade 

Backward- 

Poor 

Late 

Irregular 

ness 

Health 

Entrance 

Attendance 

Male 

Female 

Total 

8 

1 

2 

3 

3 

7 

2 

1 

1 

3 

1 

6 

7 

6 

7 

5 

11 

4 

9 

18 

27 

.5 

10 

2 

6 

7 

9 

16 

25 

4 

6 

3 

7 

1 

6 

11 

17 

3 

2 

6 

6 

2 

8 

2 

4 

1 

3 

2 

5 

1 

1 

3 

3 

1 

4 

Total 

28 

12 

40 

16 

37 

59 

96 

school  pupilage  (886  of  the  total  1217)  and  contribute  85.7% 
of  its  over-ageness  (376  of  the  total  439)  while  white  children 
who  comprise  27.2%  of  the  pupilage  contribute  only  14.3% 
of  the  over-ageness. 

Social  and  environmental  conditions  cause  the  negro  to  figure 
largely  in  elementary  school  over-ageness.  Many  colored  pupils 
are  admitted  each  year  from  the  South,  where  educational 
opportunity  has  been  lacking.  Negro  parents,  in  defiance  of 
the  law,  permit  or  encourage  irregular  attendance  at  school. 
Both    of   these   factors   contribute   to   retardation   and   failure 


Pupilage  57 

and  both  remain  unisolated  in  the  statistics  of  over-ageness 
as  presented  above.  Some  idea  of  the  importance  of  these 
factors  in  creating  over-ageness  may  be  gathered  from  Table  XXI 
which  distributes  by  causes  the  ninety-six  cases  of  pupils  three 
3''ears  or  more  over-age  for  grade. 

This  table  is  for  both  white  and  negro  pupils  but  since  it 
includes  only  six  white  pupils  the  proportions  indicated  will 
serve  for  colored  pupils  alone.  The  entire  40  cases  of  late 
entrance  are  negro  children,  as  are  15  of  the  16  cases  of  irregu- 
lar attendance.  These  figures  indicate  that  colored  pupils  not 
only  swell  the  totals  of  over-ageness  but  have  a  monopoly  of 
extreme  over-ageness.  Of  the  376  cases  of  colored  pupils  over 
age,  90  were  three  or  more  years  retarded.  This  constitutes 
23.9%  of  the  total. 

Age-Grade  and  Progress  Statistics 

If  the  school  is  to  hold  itself  responsible  for  the  results  indi- 
cated in  its  pupil  accounting  it  must  be  careful  to  eliminate 
from  such  accounting  all  sources  of  failure  over  which  it  has  no 
control.  The  school  as  such  is  not  accountable  for  the  late 
entrance  of  pupils  nor  for  their  lack  of  previous  educational 
opportunity.  Nor  is  the  school  responsible  for  long-continued 
absence.  These  factors  then  should  not  be  permitted  to  figure 
in  the  results  of  an  age-grade  tabulation.  The  school,  on  the 
other  hand,  does  hold  itself  responsible  for  the  regular  advance- 
ment of  each  pupil  one  grade  each  year.  This  condition  then 
should  enter  into  the  school's  pupil  accounting  in  order  that 
its  standard  operations  and  schedules  may  be  adjusted  from 
time  to  time  to  meet  the  varying  conditions  which  affect  the 
successful  achievement  of  the  aim. 

In  order,  therefore,  to  include  the  element  of  progress,  and 
to  refine  the  statistics  above  presented,  age  progress  charts 
were  used  the  following  year  in  the  tabulation  of  age-grade  a^nd 
progress  data.  These  figures  were  tabulated  in  the  four-fold 
classification  of  male,  female,  colored  and  white.  However,  as 
no  vital  deduction  can  be  based  upon  the  male-female  treat- 
ment it  will  be  abandoned  for  facility  in  presentation. 

Table  XXII  shows  the  distribution  of  pupils  by  age  and 
grade  on  September  1,  1918.  It  will  be  noted  that  both  age 
and  grade  are  recorded  in  half  years.     Normal  age  for  entering 


58 


School  Adjustment 


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Pupilage 


59 


lA  grade  is  five  and  one-half  years  because  pupils  are  permitted 
to  enter  when  just  past  that  age.  In  other  sections,  the  normal 
age  span  for  the  half  year's  work  is  one  year,  e.  g.  from  six  and 
one-half  to  seven  and  one-half  years  in  grade  IB.  Pupils  of 
normal  age  for  grade  are  indicated  by  numbers  in  blocks;  white 
pupils  in  heavy  type.  Totals  in  this  Table  show  that  in  both 
sections  of  every  grade,  except  in  grades  2A  and  4A,  white 
pupils  have  a  higher  per  cent,  of  under-ageness  than  do  negro 
pupils.  Of  the  total  number  of  under-age  pupils  (75)  61.3% 
are  white  and  38.7%  are  colored.  In  normal-age  totals,  white 
pupils  show  larger  per  cents  in  every  grade  and  in  over-age 
totals  in  every  case  the  negro  pupils  show  higher  per  cents  than 

Table  XXIII 
Age-Grade  Status  of  White  and  Colored  Pupils  in  Per  cents 


Grade 

Under  Age 

Normal  Age 

Over-Age 

Total  Nun 
W. 

iber  Pupils 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

C. 

lA 

.0 

.0 

80.9 

65.4 

19.1 

34.6 

21 

133 

IB 

15.4 

6.2 

69.2 

52.3 

15.4 

41.5 

13 

65 

2A 

.0 

4.8 

50.0 

36.1 

50.0 

59.0 

16 

83 

2B 

7.7 

.0 

53.8 

26.1 

38.5 

73.9 

13 

46 

3A 

9.1 

.0 

63.6 

30.5 

27.3 

69.5 

11 

59 

3B 

.0 

.0 

38.5 

38.1 

61.5 

61.9 

13 

42 

4A 

.0 

1.5 

25.0 

19.1 

75.0 

79.4 

16 

68 

4B 

41.7 

.0 

33.3 

19.4 

25.0 

80.6 

12 

36 

5A 

4.5 

3.9 

40.9 

28.6 

54.5 

67.5 

22 

77 

5B 

20.0 

4.4 

46.7 

13.2 

33.3 

82.3 

15 

68 

6A 

14.2 

4.9 

42.9 

29.5 

42.9 

65.6 

14 

61 

6B 

25.0 

5.2 

20.0 

13.8 

55.0 

81.0 

20 

58 

7A 

22.7 

7.4 

36.4 

29.6 

40.9 

63.0 

44 

54 

7B 

11.5 

3.6 

50.0 

28.4 

38.5 

67.9 

26 

28 

8A 

8.3 

.0 

37.5 

31.6 

54.2 

68.4 

24 

38 

8B 

36.7 

13.6 

40.0 

27.3 

23.3 

59.1 

30 

22 

Totals 

14.8 

3.1 

44.2 

33.7 

41.0 

63.2 

310 

938 

the  white.  Of  the  720  pupils  over-age,  82.4%  are  colored, 
though  colored  pupils  comprise  only  75.2%  of  the  entire  pupilage. 

The  relative  status  of  negro  and  white  pupils  in  each  sec- 
tion regarding  age  and  grade  may  be  ascertained  from  Table 
XXIII. 

Here  it  is  seen  in  the  per  cents  of  totals  that  while  14.8% 
of  white  pupils  are  under  age,  only  3.1%  of  negro  attain  that 
distinction.  White  pupils  show  about  the  same  per  cent  nor- 
mal as  over-age  (44.2  and  41.0),  while  negro  pupils  show 
twice  as  much   over-ageness  as  normal   (33.7%  and   63.2%). 


60 


School  Adjustment 


Colored  pupils  are  over-age  with  50%  greater  frequency  than 
whites.  These  generalizations  are  borne  out  with  only  slight 
variations  in  every  grade. 

Table  XXIV 

Pupils  Under-Age,  Normal  Age  and  Over-Age  by  Half  Years 

Colored  Pupils 


Years 

lA 

IB 

2A 

2B 

3A 

3B 

4A 

4B 

5A 

5B 

6A 

6B 

7A 

7B 

8A 

8B 

Totals 

% 

Under 

1 

2 

1 

3 

6 

.6 

Age 

'A 

4 

4 

1 

1 

3 

3 

3 

3 

1 

23 

2.5 

Normal  Age 

87 

34 

30 

12 

18 

16 

13 

7 

22 

9 

18 

8 

16 

8 

12 

6 

316 

33.7 

V? 

21 

13 

16 

11 

13 

2 

15 

1 

15 

8 

6 

3 

10 

4 

4 

5 

147 

15.7 

1 

9 

10 

11 

7 

10 

12 

6 

10 

7 

8 

6 

10 

3 

3 

4 

4 

120 

12.8 

m 

8 

2 

10 

3 

7 

2 

11 

2 

9 

9 

8 

9 

9 

2 

7 

3 

101 

10.8 

2 

4 

3 

4 

4 

5 

3 

4 

8 

9 

12 

4 

5 

2 

1 

68 

7.3 

2V, 

1 

4 

5 

1 

1 

6 

1 

10 

6 

6 

7 

2 

3 

4 

57 

6.1 

< 

3 

1 

1 

1 

4 

5 

2 

4 

11 

5 

3 

4 

1 

2 

3 

47 

5.0 

3V? 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

3 

1 

2 

4 

2 

25 

2.6 

> 

O 

4 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

1 

1 

13 

1.4 

4H 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

5 

11 

1.2 

5 

2 

2 

4 

.4 

Total 

938 

100.1 

White  Pupils 

Years 

lA 

IB 

2A 

2B 

3A 

3B 

4A 

4B 

5A 

5B 

6A 

6B 

7A 

7B 

8A 

8B 

Totals 

% 

Under 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

8 

2.6 

Age  1 

M 

2 

1 

1 

5 

3 

2 

5 

8 

3 

8 

38 

12.3 

Normal  Age 

17 

9 

8 

7 

7 

5 

4 

4 

9 

7 

6 

4 

16 

13 

9 

12 

137 

44.2 

y? 

1 

3 

2 

1 

2 

4 

1 

5 

2 

2 

2 

9 

3 

4 

2 

43 

13.9 

1 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 

5 

3 

4 

3 

4 

3 

3 

35 

11.3 

ly 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

20 

6.5 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

7 

2.3 

bC 

2V^ 

1 

2 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

11 

3.6 

< 

3 

1 

2 

1 

4 

1.3 

3V^ 

1 

1 

2 

4 

1.3 

O 

4 

4M 

5 

1 

1 
1 

1 
2 

.3 
.6 

Total 

310 

100.0 

Besides  being  more  wide-spread  among  colored  pupils,  over- 
ageness  is  more  acute  in  regard  to  the  years  of  its  extent.  In 
Table  XXIV  have  been  distributed  the  data  for  under,  normal 
and  over-age  by  half  years  for  each  grade  and  section.  Ex- 
amination of  these  entries  indicates  that  colored  pupils  contribute 
practically  all  of  the  extreme  over-ageness.     This  is  especially 


Pupilage  61 

noticeable  in  the  lower  grades  where  even  though  a  pupil  is 
three,  four  or  five  years  over-age  for  grade,  he  is  compelled 
to  attend  school.  These  extreme  cases  leave  school  at  the 
earliest  opportunity  so  that  in  the  upper  grades  their  number 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  spite  of  this  fact  the  table  shows 
225  colored  pupils  to  be  two  years  or  more  over-age.  These 
comprise  24%  of  all  colored  pupils.  White  pupils  show  twenty- 
nine  such  cases  or  9.3%  of  total  white  enrollment.  These 
pupils  will  at  best  be  from  16  to  20  years  of  age  at  the  com- 
pletion of  the  elementary  school  course.  It  is  accordingly  a 
safe  prediction  that  the  large  majority  of  them  will  drop  out 
before  that  time.  The  significance  of  this  over-ageness  does 
not  lie  so  much  in  the  fact  that  these  children  will  leave  school 
early,  but  lies  more  particularly  in  the  fact  that  while  in  school 
the  instruction  received  will  not  be  adapted  to  their  peculiar 
interests,  aptitudes  and  abilities.  Presumably  the  course  of 
study  was  made  for  that  one-third  of  the  pupils  who  are  of 
normal  age.  But  the  same  course  must  also  serve  for  the  one- 
fourth  of  the  pupils  who  are  two  or  more  years  in  advance  of 
that  normal  age.  These  over-age  pupils  are  the  'problems'  of 
the  classroom — indifferent,  blase,  impervious  to  stimulation. 
They  have  put  away  'childish  things'  and  refuse  to  respond 
with  children  and  as  children  do.  Not  only  do  they  make  no 
satisfactory  progress  themselves  but  they  serve  very  effectively 
to  impede  the  progress  of  others.  Accordingly,  if  the  aim  of 
the  school  is  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  individual,  it  is  manifest 
that  these  over-age  pupils  must  receive  different  treatment 
and  the  school  that  fails  to  afford  opportunity  for  such  different 
treatment  is  in  so  far  ignoring  its  educational  aim. 

School  Progress 

The  progress  of  pupils  through  the  grades  is  shown  by  half 
years  in  Table  XXV. 

Since  it  is  the  aim  of  the  school  to  have  each  child  progress 
one  section  of  a  grade  in  each  half  year,  only  one  half  year  is 
considered  as  normal  time  for  completing  a  semester's  work 
and  pupils  who  have  failed  of  promotion  at  any  time  during 
their  school  careers  are  considered  retarded.  This  method  of 
computing  retardation  is  apt  to  make  the  figures  run  start- 
ingly  high,  but  it  sets  forth  clearly  the  true  state  of  affairs 


62 


School  Adjustment 


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\^       \^       \N       \^       \e<i       \«      \^ 

■<t"5»CO;Dt>.t>.00000503OO^ 
»-H  I-H  I-H 

w 

Total        C 
Ace.  Prog.   No. 
Nor.  Prog.  No. 
Ret.  Prog.    No. 

Pupilage 


63 


regarding  each  pupil.     Thi?,  is  the  prime  desideratum.     Table 

XXV  shows  that  accelerated  progress  has  been  made  by  65 
pupils,  5.2%  of  the  whole.  The  numbers  are  so  few  as  to  per- 
mit rather  wide  variation  in  per  cents  of  accelerated  progress 
in  different  grades,  but  totals  in  this  Table  and  better  in  Table 

XXVI  show  that  7.4%  of  white  pupils  and  4.5%  of  colored 
were  accelerated. 

Table  XXVI 
Grade-Progress  Status  of  White  and  Colored  Pupils  in  Per  cents 


Grade 

Accelerated 

Normal 

Retarded 

Total  Number  Pupils 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

W. 

C. 

lA 

71.4 

75.2 

28.6 

24.8 

21 

133 

IB 

61.5 

26.1 

38.5 

73.8 

13 

65 

2A 

56.2 

60.2 

43.7 

39.8 

16 

83 

2B 

7.7 

2.1 

30.7 

32.6 

61.5 

65.2 

13 

46 

3A 

90.9 

42.4 

9.1 

57.6 

11 

59 

3B 

2.4 

15.4 

14.3 

84.6 

83.3 

13 

42 

4A 

4.4 

18.8 

26.4 

81.2 

69.1 

16 

68 

4B 

2.8 

41.7 

13.9 

58.3 

83.3 

12 

36 

5A 

9.1 

5.2 

31.8 

38.9 

59.1 

55.8 

22 

77 

5B 

13.3 

5.9 

6.6 

11.8 

80.0 

82.3 

15 

68 

6A 

8.2 

57.1 

26.2 

42.9 

65.6 

14 

61 

6B 

10.0 

8.6 

20.0 

5.2 

70.0 

86.2 

20 

58 

7A 

13.6 

1.8 

47.7 

35.2 

38.6 

62.9 

44 

54 

7B 

7.7 

17.8 

7.7 

10.7 

84.6 

71.4 

26 

28 

8A 

16.7 

15.8 

37.5 

21.0 

45.8 

63.1 

24 

38 

8B 

13.3 

27.3 

23.3 

22.7 

63.3 

50.0 

30 

22 

Totals 

7.4 

4.5 

37.1 

35.0 

55.5 

60.5 

310 

938 

Normal  progress  is  shown  by  37.1%  of  white  pupils  and 
35%  of  the  colored.  55.5%  of  white  pupils  and  60.5%  of 
colored  pupils  are  retarded.  These  per  cents  of  progress  are 
not  so  diverse  as  were  those  of  age,  seeming  to  indicate  that 
colored  pupils  are  late  entrants  but  progress  only  slightly  slower 
than  the  whites.  That  this  conclusion  is  unsound  can  be  seen 
by  inspection  of  the  numbers  of  colored  and  white  pupils  en- 
rolled in  each  grade.  Where  retardation  is  smallest,  in  Grade 
lA,  there  are  more  than  six  times  as  many  colored  pupils  as 
white.  This  large  absolute  number  of  colored  pupils  in  Grade 
lA  has  an  important  effect  upon  the  total  retardation  per  cent. 
Again,  since  the  majority  of  colored  pupils  have  been  shown 
to  be  over-age,  a  slight  degree  of  retardation  tends  to  cause 
them  to  be  eliminated.  Note  that  Grade  8B  shows  a  prepon- 
derance of  white  pupils.     While,  in  the  school  as  a  whole,  white 


04 


School  Adjustment 


pupils  constitute  but  24,9%  of  the  total  enrollment.  Indeed, 
nowhere  above  the  6th  Grade  are  colored  pupils  retained  in 
proportions  approaching  that  for  the  school  as  a  whole.  Those 
colored  pupils  who  are  thus  retained  are  therefore  a  finer  selec- 
tion from  the  children  of  their  race  than  are  the  white  pupils. 
Both  these  conditions — the  elimination  of  the  less  fit  and  the 
retention   of  the  select — act   to   improve   the   school   progress 

Table  XXVII 

Pupils  Showing  Accelerated,  Normal  and  Retarded  Progress 

Colored  Pupils 


Years 

lA 

IB 

2A 

2B 

3A 

3B 

4A 

4B 

5A 

5B 

6A 

6B 

7A 

7B 

8A 

8B 

Totals 

% 

Acceler-  2 

ated     IH 

2 

1 

1 

4 

.4 

Progress  1 

1 

1 

.1 

H 

1 

1 

3 

1 

2 

4 

5 

5 

1 

4 

5 

5 

37 

3.9 

Nor.  Prog. 

100 

17 

50 

15 

25 

6 

18 

5 

30 

8 

16 

3 

19 

3 

8 

5 

328 

35.0 

H 

17 

39 

10 

16 

5 

15 

10 

7 

13 

20 

5 

16 

7 

3 

2 

7 

192 

20.5 

i     1 

14 

4 

14 

6 

15 

6 

15 

6 

7 

9 

14 

8 

7 

5 

7 

1 

138 

14.7 

§,    1^ 

1 

5 

3 

2 

4 

9 

5 

12 

1 

7 

5 

16 

3 

6 

4 

2 

85 

9.0 

^      2 

1 

3 

3 

7 

1 

7 

5 

12 

4 

9 

5 

5 

6 

68 

7.2 

£       2H 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

7 

2 

4 

4 

5 

1 

30 

3.2 

T3          3 

3 

2 

1 

7 

4 

1 

2 

3 

3 

26 

2.8 

1     33^ 

1 

4 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

10 

1.1 

^       4 

2 

1 

4 

1 

3 

1 

12 

1.3 

'^       4^ 

1 

4 

1 

6 

.6 

^       5 

1 

1 

.1 

Total 

938 

99.9 

White  Pupils 

Years 

lA 

IB 

2A 

2B 

3A 

3B 

4A 

4B 

5A 

5B 

6A 

6B 

7A 

7B 

8A 

8B 

Totals 

% 

Acceler-  2 

1 

1 

.3 

ated     IH 

1 

1 

2 

.6 

Progress  1 

3 

3 

1.0 

'A 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

17 

5.5 

Nor,  Prog. 

15 

8 

9 

4 

10 

2 

3 

5 

7 

1 

8 

4 

21 

2 

9 

7 

115 

37.1 

Yi 

5 

4 

1 

5 

5 

2 

6 

6 

6 

5 

6 

7 

10 

68 

22.0 

S       1 

1 

3 

1 

2 

9 

1 

4 

2 

3 

2 

6 

4 

7 

5 

50 

16.1 

2      2 

1 

1 

3 

2 

1 

7 

3 

18 

5.8 

1 

2 

3 

2 

1 

2 

3 

3 

17 

5.5 

^    2y2 

1 

5 

1 

3 

1 

1 

12 

3.9 

"S      3 

2 

2 

.6 

1      3^ 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1.0 

&      4 

0 

.0 

«       4^ 

1 

1 

2 

.6 

P^      5 

0 

.0 

Total 

310 

100.0 

Pupilage  65 

rates  for  colored  pupils.  In  spite  of  these  circumstances,  how- 
ever, the  per  cent  of  retardation  is  five  points  higher  for  col- 
ored than  for  white  pupils. 

A  more  thorough  examination  of  the  extent  of  retardation 
among  individual  pupils  (see  Table  XXVII)  shows  that  in 
the  lesser  degrees  of  retardation  colored  and  white  pupils  main- 
tain the  same  rates — 44%  of  both  classes  of  pupils  are  retarded 
one  and  one-half  years  or  less.  It  is  in  the  upper  ranges  of 
retardation  that  the  entire  difference  is  found.  Colored  pupils 
show  153  cases,  or  16.3%  of  total  colored  enrollment,  retarded 
two  years  or  more.  White  pupils  show  36  cases,  or  11.6%. 
Thus  we  find  that  along  with  extreme  over-ageness  there  is 
extreme  retardation,  both  of  which  maladjustments  encourage 
elimination. 

A  somewhat  finer  analysis  of  the  age  and  progress  statistics 
for  Grades  5  to  8  inclusive  shows  again  that  colored  pupils 
figure  largely  in  the  over-age  and  retarded  groups  while  white 
pupils  make  a  better  showing  in  groups  having  normal  or  rapid 
progress  at  normal  age. 

The  figures  in  Table  XXVIII  show  the  exact  status  of  each 
grammar  grade  pupil  regarding  both  age  and  school  progress. 
In  every  one  of  the  nine  divisions  of  these  tables  the  white 
pupils  show  better  results  than  do  the  colored.  For  purposes 
of  comparison  the  nine  divisions  have  been  telescoped  into  four 
as  follows:  over-age,  slow  progress;  over-age,  late  entrance, 
lost  time;  at  or  below  age,  slow  progress;  at  or  below  age,  nor- 
mal or  rapid  progress.     These  per  cents  are  shown  in  Graph  I. 

Typical  Cases  of  Retardation 

A  more  intimate  picture  of  conditions  surrounding  typical 
colored  retardates  is  afforded  by  the  reports  of  personal  visits 
to  their  homes.  The  school  is  fortunate  in  having  the  services 
of  a  trained  colored  social  worker  with  a  broad  social  viewpoint 
and  a  sympathetic,  understanding  contact  with  the  probleins 
of  her  people.  This  home  and  school  visitor  acts  as  a  social 
secretary  to  link  the  interests  of  home  and  school.  She  has 
done  much  to  improve  home  conditions  in  order  that  a  satis- 
factory basis  for  successful  school  work  can  be  established. 
Her  report  on  visits  to  the  homes  of  a  few  of  the  over-age  and 
backward  pupils  of  the  sixth  grade  follows: 


66 


School  Adjustment 

Table  XXVIII  (a) 
Age-Progress  Status,  Grades  5-8 


White  Boys 

Under 
Age 

Normal 

Age 

Over  Age 

Yrs. 

— 1 

-H 

V2 

1 

IV2 

2 

2M 

3 

3H 

4 

4J^ 

Total 

% 

Accel \y2 

1 

1 

2 

2.1 

erated  — 1 

1 

1 

1.5 

Progress —  J^ 

4 

5 

9 

9.4 

Normal  Prog. 

— 

6 

4 

13 

3 

1 

1 

24 

25.2 

^ 

11 

4 

1 

2 

22 

23.1 

S       1 

1 

7 

5 

3 

1 

2 

19 

20.0 

fe       IH 

1 

2 

5 

8 

8.4 

£       2 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3.1 

^       2H 

1 

2 

2 

1 

6 

6.3 

-^       3 

1 

1 

1.5 

"H      3^ 

J       4 

^       5 

Total 

4 

17 

35 

14 

8 

5 

2 

8 

2 

95 

% 

4.2 

17.8 

36.8 

14.7 

8.4 

5.2 

2.1 

8.4 

2.1 

100 

White 

Girls 

Accel IH 

1 

1 

1 

erated  — 1 

2 

2 

2 

Progress —  ]/^ 

2 

2 

2 

1 

7 

7 

Normal  Prog. 

2 

7 

21 

3 

2 

35 

35 

^         H 

2 

9 

2 

3 

1 

1 

18 

18 

I       1 

6 

4 

1 

2 

1 

14 

14 

^      W2 

3 

1 

2 

2 

8 

8 

£       2 

1 

3 

1 

1 

6 

6 

^       2^ 

2 

1 

1 

1 

5 

5 

^       3 

1 

1 

1 

^       3^ 

1 

1 

1 

3 

3 

-S       4 

tf       4J^ 

Total 

4 

12 

41 

15 

12 

5 

3 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1 

100 

% 

4 

12 

41 

15 

12 

5 

3 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1 

100 

"The  few  cases  which  I  have  just  visited  are  typical  of  re- 
tarded Negro  children.  The  environmental  condition  for  all  is 
ignorance  and  poverty.  In  two  cases  feeble-mindedness  is 
marked.  Eight  of  the  eleven  children  here  visited  are  from 
the  South,  two  having  lived  here  Uttle  over  one  year. 


Pupilage 

Table  XXVIII  (b) 

Age-Progress  Statiis-Grades  5-8 

Colored  Bovs 


67 


Under 
Age 

Normal 
Age 

Over  Age 

Yrs. 

— 1 

-3^ 

'A 

1 

IH 

2 

2^ 

3 

33^ 

4 

43^ 

Total 

% 

Accel 13^ 

1 

1 

1 

3 

1.7 

erated  — 1 

Progress — 14 

2 

4 

1 

1 

4 

12 

7.1 

Normal  Prog. 

5 

17 

3 

3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

2 

35 

20.9 

Progress     H 

1 

12 

3 

6 

4 

2 

1 

1 

30 

17.9 

Retarded  1 

5 

6 

5 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

24 

14.3 

IH 

1 

1 

6 

2 

8 

1 

2 

1 

22 

13.1 

2 

5 

2 

6 

2 

15 

8.9 

2y2 

4 

2 

2 

1 

1 

10 

5.9 

3 

1 

2 

4 

7 

4  1 

3^ 

2 

2 

1.1 

4 

2 

3 

5 

2.9 

4^ 

1 

1 

.5 

5 

1 

1 

.5 

Total 

3 

7 

40 

19 

17 

25 

18 

18 

8 

3 

7 

2 

167 

% 

1.7 

4.1 

23.9 

11.3 

10.1 

14.9 

10.7 

17.7 

4.7 

1.7 

4.1 

1.1 

100 

Colored  Girls 


Accel 13^ 

1 

1 

.4 

erated  — 1 

1 

1 

.4 

Progress — 14 

1 

8 

4 

2 

2 

1 

1 

19 

8.0 

Normal  Prog. 

2 

6 

25 

11 

7 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 



57 

24  0 

Progress     3^ 

1 

16 

9 

6 

3 

2 

2 

1 

3 

43 

18.0 

Retarded  1 

8 

9 

2 

7 

3 

3 

2 

34 

14.0 

VA 

1 

3 

7 

5 

4 

2 

22 

9.1 

2 

4 

9 

7 

4 

1 

1 

26 

11.0 

2H 

3 

6 

3 

1 

1 

14 

5.8 

3 

3 

2 

1 

6 

.5 

3^ 

2 

1 

3 

1 

7 

3.0 

4 

1 

1 

2 

4 

1.7 

43^ 

1 

4 

5 

2.0 

Total 

3 

7 

59 

36 

28 

31 

27 

20 

10 

13 

1 

4 

239. 

% 

1.2 

2.9 

24.6 

15.0 

11.7 

12.9 

11.3 

8.3 

4.1 

5.40.4 

1.6 

100 

"I  have  carried  to  these  homes  the  school  ideals,  and  have 
advocated  a  quiet  hour  around  the  table  with  the  books  before 
bed  time,  the  open  windows  in  the  sleeping  room,  the  impor- 
tance of  the  proper  school  attitude.  In  every  case  I  believe 
the  visit  was  appreciated." 


68 


School  Adjustment 


100 


90 


80 


70 


60 


50 


40 


30 


20 


10 


Graph  I 
Slatm  of  Pupils  regarding  Age  and  Progress  (Grades  6  to  8) 
Colored  White 

Boys  Girls  Boys  Girls 


/// 


lllili 


Key 

Over  Age 
Slow  Progress 


Over  Age 
Late  Entrance 
Lost  Time 


at  or  Below  Age 
Slow  Progress 


at  or  Below  Age 
Normal  or  Rapid  Progress 


Pupilage  GO 

1.  Girl,  age  14  yrs.  11  mos.,  repeated  lA,  2A,  4B,  6A,  6B — 

absent  30  sessions  in  four  months. 

Health  good — operation  for  appendicitis  in  1918. 

Father  dead,  mother  works  away  from  home  till  7  P.  M. 
each  day. 

Home — Small  four-room  house,  $14.00  per  month,  in  fair 
condition  considering  mother's  continued  absence  at  work. 
There  is  an  excess  of  furniture:  piano,  china  closet,  pic- 
tures, bric-a-brac,  etc.  Mother  illiterate — from  Vir- 
ginia— anxious  for  daughter  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  school.  Says  girl  goes  to  the  movies  every  night. 
Girl  shows  no  interest  in  school  work — requires  voca- 
tional training  and  guidance. 

School  record  poor. 

2.  Girl,  age  17  yrs.  3  mos.,  repeated  IB,  3A,  4A,  4B,  6A,  6B. 
Health  poor — congestion  of  appendix,  adenoids  and  tonsils 

removed,  out  of  school  three  years — seems  lifeless  and 

without  strength. 
Home — Good  physical  condition,  but  untidy  and  dirty. 
Mother — Illkempt,  poor  moral  influence. 
Girl   lacks   initiative — works   well   under  direction — needs 

training  in  simple  sewing  or  other  mechanical  work. 

3.  Boy,  age  15  yrs.  1  mo.,  repeated  4A,  4B,  5B,  6A,  6B. 
Health  good.     Had  typhoid  fever  about  5  years  ago. 

A  short  time  ago  a  wagon  ran  over  him,  striking  his  head; 
this  has  left  him  a  little  nervous. 

The  mother  was  out  at  the  time  of  my  visit.  I  had  my 
conference  with  the  grandmother. 

There  are  three  other  families  in  this  house.  The  atmos- 
phere of  the  home  is  decidedly  tame.  Home  badly  kept. 
This  family  stands  well  in  the  community,  but  it  is  a 
home  where  the  parental  control  is  weak.  They  claim 
decided  regard  and  appreciation  for  the  school. 

Boy  has  not  learned  to  concentrate.  Does  not  study  regu- 
larly. When  he  does  settle  down  to  his  books  he  is 
usually  interrupted  to  do  some  work  or  to  go  an  errand. 
There  is  no  effort  made  to  systematize  his  study  hour. 

4.  Boy,  age  15  yrs.,  repeated  lA,  2A,  3B,  4A,  6A. 

Health — This  boy  was  delicate  as  a  baby.  Had  paralysis 
when  three  months  old.     Did  not  grow  very  much.     , 

Mother  works  from  home  nearly  every  day.  The  home  is 
in  decided  disorder.  One  hesitates  to  go  into  it.  The 
mother  appears  to  be  a  good  woman.  She  seemed  very 
much  disturbed  about  her  boy's  slow  mental  and  physical 
growth;  but  she  herself  is  of  low  grade  mentally  and 
does  not  appear  to  be  very  strong. 

Boy  does  no  work  outside  the  home,  goes  to  bed  at  9:30 
and  is  up  at  seven.  Mother  claims  the  windows  are 
raised  entire  night  in  his  sleeping  room.  Boy  attempts 
each  night  to  do  home  study.  Mother  claims  he  is  not 
able  to  learn.  The  home  attitude  toward  the  school  is 
favorable  but  weak. 


70 


School  Adjustment 


The  conditions  here  described  are  as  the  visitor  has  said, 
"typical  of  retarded  Negro  children."  Better  homes,  dehght- 
ful  in  every  way  and  uplifting  in  their  influence,  do  exist  among 
Negroes  but  they  are  relatively  few.  The  conditions  under 
which  the  majority  of  children  live,  while  not  so  acute  as  those 
described  here,  are  generally  so  unsatisfactory  as  to  make  it 
seem  desirable  for  the  school  to  find  means  of  bolstering  up 
the  family  life.  In  order  to  perform  its  own  proper  function 
with  success,  it  is  important  that  the  school  secure  advantageous 
conditions  in  the  home.  Where  these  do  not  already  exist, 
it  becomes  the  duty  of  the  school  actively  to  engage  in  the 
improvement  of  such  conditions. 

Pupils  of  Incomplete  Record 
Before  leaving  the  study  of  age  and  progress  it  must  be  noted 
that  beside  the  1238  pupils  in  the  study  there  were  109  whose 
records  for  progress  were  incomplete  and  could  not  be  included. 

Table  XXIX 
Age-Grade  Status  of  Pupils  of  Incomplete  Record 


Grade 

Age 

Fotals 

in 
Years 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6    1 

7      1    8 

B 

G 



B 

G 

B 

G 

B 

G 

B 

G 

B 

G 

B 

G 

B 

G 

B 

G 

T 

7 

7H 

1* 

1 

1 

8 

S'A 

1 

1 

1 

1          2 

9 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1* 

1 

9^ 

2 

3 

6         9 

10 

1 

3 

2 

1 

10^ 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

6 

7 

13 

11 

1 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

11^ 

1 

1 

1 

2 

8 

7 

15 

12 

1 

2 

1 

3 

123^ 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

10 

5 

15 

13 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1* 

1 

13J^ 

1 

2 

2 

1* 

5 

8 

13 

14 

1 

1 

4 

2 

U'A 

1 

1 

3 

1 

6 

9 

15 

15 

2 

2 

1 

2 

4 

1 

15H 

2 

1 

4 

8 

11 

19 

16 

1* 

1 

16^ 

1 

1 

3 

4 

17 

1 

1 

17^ 

2 

2 

18 

isy2 

1 

1 

1 

Total 

51 

58 

109 

*  Starred  entries  represent  white  pupils. 


Pupilage  71 

Table  XXIX  shows  the  distribution  of  these  109  pupils  with 
regard  to  race  and  age.  It  will  be  noted  that  only  five  are 
white  children.  White  pupils  as  a  rule  have  grown  up  in  this 
or  neighboring  schools  and  their  progress  records  have  been 
kept  without  difficulty.  The  104  colored  children  are  largely 
admissions  from  the  South  without  record  of  previous  schooling. 
It  will  be  noted  in  the  Table  that  but  one  of  these  109  pupils 
is  under  age,  5  are  normal  and  104  over  age,  17  of  them,  one 
year,  and  87  of  them,  two  years  up  to  four  or  five  years.  The 
pupils  are  largely  two,  three  and  four  years  over-age  for  grade, 
are  poorly  classified  and  cannot  be  expected  to  progress  regu- 
larly or  with  much  profit  to  themselves  in  a  course  planned 
for  normal-age  pupils. 

Attempts  to  meet  the  peculiar  needs  of  such  pupils  have 
been  made  through  the  establishment  of  an  adjustment  class 
where  the  very  worst  cases  of  maladjustment  have  been  sepa- 
rated and  given  individual  treatment  with  a  view  to  adjusting 
them  to  the  Philadelphia  course  of  study  and  finally  classifying 
them  effectively.  However,  conditions  have  made  it  impossible 
to  organize  more  than  one  such  class  so  that  none  of  these  109 
pupils  could  profit  by  the  special  treatment  because  it  was 
monopohzed  by  more  acute  cases.  Thus,  these  poorly  adjusted 
children,  to  the  extent  of  8%  of  the  total  pupilage  of  the  school, 
were  retained  in  regular  classes.  The  obstruction  of  an  already 
burdensome  problem  of  over-age  and  retardation  is  thereby 
greatly  increased  and  both  normal  and  maladjusted  pupils 
suffer  in  consequence. 

Subnormal  Pupils 

Another  class  of  pupils  not  included  in  any  of  the  above 
enumerations  is  the  group  of  mental  defectives.  Only  those 
children  who  are  so  abnormal  as  to  be  institutional  cases  can 
find  a  place  in  the  one  so-called  orthogenic-backward  class 
maintained  in  the  school.  The  pupils  in  this  class  are  made  the 
subjects  of  careful  examination,  and  special  effort  is  [made  to 
improve  their  condition  in  every  way  possible.  The  following 
notes  on  individual  pupils  were  made  by  a  representative  of 
the  Department  of  Psychology,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
They  will  serve  to  indicate  the  characteristics  and  possibilities 
of  certain  mentally  defective  pupils. 


72  School  Adjustment 

1.  Age— 14  yrs.     I.  Q.— 36. 

Diagnosis:  L.  G.  I.  (Barr).  Failed  completely  on  the 
cylinders  and  design  blocks  and  her  performance  with 
the  Form  Board  was  only  fair. 

Recommended:  Institutional  care.  Shows  sex  conscious- 
ness. 

Note:  Decided  Mongolian  appearance  to  this  girl.  In  con- 
duct she  is  apathetic  and  dull,  and  entirely  lacks  any 
lively  interest  or  enthusiasm  for  anything. 

2.  Age— 11  yrs.,  11  mos.     I.  Q.— 60. 

Diagnosis:  H.  G.  I.  (Barr).  Failed  on  the  Binet  tests 
which  do  not  require  any  degree  of  schooling.  Perform- 
ance with  Form  Board  good;  performance  with  Design 
Blocks  poor.  Satisfied  with  failures.  Physically  beyond 
age  in  height  and  weight.  Mentally  nearly  five  years 
retarded. 

Recommended:  Reason  for  eye  examination.  If  naturally 
inclined  to  cook,  should  speciaHze.  If  possible,  should 
have  training  to  enable  her  to  read  recipes. 

3.  Age— 10  yrs.  7  mos.     I.  Q  — 47. 

Diagnosis:    Not  higher  than  L.  G.  I.  Form  Board,   very 

poor;  Cyhnders  and  Design  Blocks,  a  complete  failure. 

Educational  abihty  is  completely  lacking.     In  contrast 

to  these,  however,  her  memory  span  for  digits  is  high. 

She  repeats  both  series  of  6  under  the  Binet    10-year 

tests. 
Recommended:    Industrial  training,   although  mechanical 

ability  is  so  very  poor  that  even  this  may  not  be  possible. 

Probably  institutional  care  is  the  only  other  alternative. 

4.  Age — 10  yrs.  4  mos.     I.  Q. — 58. 

Diagnosis:  M.  G.  I.  (Barr).  Succeeds  well  with  Form 
Board;  practically  fails  with  Cylinders  and  Design  Blocks. 
School  subjects  are  a  complete  failure.  Change  in  physical 
appearance  from  one  day  to  the  next,  unnaturally  height- 
ened color  at  times,  and  poor  result  of  physical  examina- 
tion might  suggest  tuberculosis. 

Recommended:  Thorough  physical  examination.  After 
improvement  in  health,  should  be  given  industrial  train- 
ing. No  further  attempt  should  be  made  to  teach  her 
regular  school  subjects. 

Here  again  is  a  class  of  pupils  who  need  very  special  treat- 
ment. Such  treatment  further  emphasizes  the  necessity  of 
careful  investigation  and  study  of  the  exact  physical,  mental 
and  moral  status  of  each  individual.  Only  on  a  basis  of  this 
information  can  a  working  aim  be  established  and  only  when 
both  status  and  aim  are  clearly  visioned  can  there  be  effective 
educative  contact. 


Pupilage  73 

There  is  in  but  few  cases  any  question  of  reestablishing  these 
children  in  regular  classes.  They  have  shown  that  they  lack 
capacity  for  growth  along  academic  lines.  This  does  not  mean 
that  they  are  totally  wanting  in  capacity  for  future  usefulness 
unless  indeed  they  are  forced  blindly  to  the  sad  doom  of  un- 
erring failure  by  being  held  persistently  to  tasks  which  are 
beyond  their  limited  capacities.  We  cannot  restore  lost  pro- 
cesses but  we  can  discover  what  these  children  are  able  to  do 
with  their  limited  intelligence,  and  then  train  them  to  do  those 
things  well. 

Thus  there  have  been  removed  from  the  regular  classes  of 
the  school  a  group  of  eighteen  mentally  defective  children  and 
another  group  of  eighteen  retarded,  over-age,  and  generally 
maladjusted  children.  These,  as  has  been  shown,  are  only  the 
most  acute  cases  and  all  of  them  are  Negro  pupils.  There 
remain  in  regular  classes  many  other  pupils,  white  and  colored, 
who  ought  properly  to  be  placed  in  classes  similar  to  one  or 
the  other  of  these  groups. 

The  109  cases  of  incomplete  record,  104  of  whom  are  colored 
and  practically  all  of  whom  are  notably  over-age  require  per- 
sistent emphasis  on  minimum  essentials  and  continued,  prac- 
tical application.  Opportunity  for  rapid  advancement  should 
be  afforded  these  pupils  in  order  that  they  may  be  restored  to 
regular  classes  and  retained  in  school  until  something  approach- 
ing an  optimum  amount  of  educative  experience  has  been 
acquired.  So  also  with  a  large  number  of  the  many  pupils  who 
have  been  shown  to  be  extremely  retarded  and  over-age  for 
grade.  To  avoid  the  necessity  of  properly  classifying  these 
pupils  is  to  clog  the  regular  processes  of  instruction  for  both 
normal  and  dull  pupils,  and  to  permit  the  most  fundamental 
aspect  of  the  educational  aim — meeting  the  needs  of  the  indi- 
vidual— to  be  set  aside. 

Promotions 

At  once  a  cause  and  a  result  of  the  excessive  retardation  and 
over-age  indicated  above  is  to  be  found  in  the  promotion  rates  of 
the  school.  These  show  that  only  three-fourths  of  the  pupils  en- 
rolled at  the  end  of  the  term  have  completed  the  work  satisfac- 
torily or  show  ability  to  take  up  profitably  the  work  of  the  next 
higher   grade.     The   promotion   rate   for   the   school   in   June, 


74  School  Adjustment 

1918,  was  75.7%  while  that  for  the  city  as  a  whole  was  84.1%. 
In  1919  the  promotion  rate  for  the  school  was  74.9%.  To  be 
sure,  in  this  connection,  somewhat  of  the  traditional  attitude 
still  remains  among  teachers.  Success  is  measured  too  much 
in  amounts  of  information  rather  than  in  development  of  nat- 
ural tastes,  abilities,  interests,  and  the  power  to  solve  the  prob- 
lems presented  by  practical  life  situations.  This  attitude  on 
the  part  of  the  teachers  is  due  to  rigid  interpretation  of  all 
too  static  and  formal  courses  of  study.  Fortunately,  recent 
radical  changes  have  enriched  and  vitalized  these  courses  and 
have  done  much  to  place  emphasis  on  the  individual  child  and 
his  relation  to  the  affairs  of  every-day  life.  When  the  new 
spirit  has  had  time  to  permeate  the  work  of  the  school  it  may 
confidently  be  expected,  that  both  pupils  and  teachers  will 
'live'  in  school.  When  school  activities  are  shot  through  with 
wholesome,  practical,  purposeful  endeavor,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  pupils  will  respond. 

Adjustment  to  Needs 

However,  while  these  theoretical  considerations  of  general- 
application  have  peculiar  force  in  the  situation  under  discus- 
sion, we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  great  burden  of  over-age 
and  retardation  which  clogs  the  machinery  of  every  classroom. 
Instruction  addressed  to  and  activities  planned  for  normal 
children  do  not  appeal  to  these  older  and  retarded  pupils.  A 
large  proportion  of  them  are  colored  pupils  who  are  well  ad- 
vanced toward  physiological  maturity.  These  have  acquired 
new  interests  which  do  not  harmonize  with  the  routine  work 
of  their  younger  and  unsophisticated  school-mates.  Many  of 
them  work  after  school,  an  activity  which  often  heightens  their 
indifference  to  apparently  impractical  and  formal  school  work 
whose  relation  to  life  is  at  best  vague.  These  children  are  pass- 
ing through  one  of  the  most  crucial  stages  in  their  lives — a 
stage  where  sympathetic,  intelligent,  educational  guidance  is 
of  paramount  importance.  But  the  sort  of  instruction  and 
training  they  need  is  out  of  place  for  the  normal  child  of  their 
school  grade  and  because  it  is  so  these  unfortunates  lose  in- 
terest in  school  work,  become  irregular  in  attendance,  unreliable 
in  preparation  of  assignments  and  generally  uncooperative. 
More  than  ever  do  they  give  themselves  up  to  the  lure  of  the 


Pupilage  75 

movie,  the  street  and  the  corner  gang.  The  estrangement 
becomes  complete,  and  rare  patience  and  ingenuity  are  required 
of  the  teacher  to  avoid  open  conflict.  Finally,  when  the  bar 
is  removed,  these  children  leave  school  for  work — potent  re- 
minders of  the  failure  of  the  school  to  serve. 

In  an  attempt  to  meet  more  adequately  this  acute  situation 
in  the  school,  more  minute  classification  within  grades  is  ef- 
fected wherever  practicable.  Pupils  who  show  marked  ability 
are  promoted  incidentally  during  the  progress  of  the  term's 
work.  However,  this  element  of  flexibility  is  limited  in  its 
application  to  pupils  who  have  evidenced  superior  achievement 
and  who  show  capacity  for  advanced  work.  Considering  the 
fact  that  such  promotion  entails  precipitate  introduction  into 
the  work  of  a  higher  grade  already  in  course  of  progress,  it  is 
remarkable  that  pupils  thus  promoted  gain  so  high  a  degree 
of  success  in  the  new  work.  This  condition  makes  it  necessary 
to  limit  incidental  promotion  to  the  exceptional  pupil.  During 
the  past  term  only  2%  of  the  pupils  in  regular  classes  have 
been  advanced  in  this  manner.  This  proportion  could  be  ma- 
terially increased  if  it  were  possible  in  rapid  advancement 
classes  to  afford  instruction  in  the  minimum  essentials  of  the 
half-year's  work  to  be  gained. 

Another  attempt  to  effect  a  closer  classification  of  pupils 
and  to  permit  rates  of  progress  suited  to  their  abilities  was 
made  by  means  of  a  reclassification  of  parallel  divisions  of 
certain  grades.  This  was  done  in  the  middle  of  the  semester 
on  a  basis  of  class  standing  and  physiological  age  and  maturity. 
One  class  was  then  permitted  to  make  rapid  progress  while 
the  other  reviewed  fundamentals,  took  its  educational  bear- 
ings and  then  proceeded  at  a  pace  comfortable  for  most  of  its 
pupils.  At  the  end  of  the  term  pupils  of  this  class  were  pro- 
moted, regardless  of  not  having  completed  a  full  term's  work, 
if  they  showed  industry,  apphcation  and  a  fair  degree  of  power. 
Many  pupils  of  the  advanced  class  will  secure  incidental  pro- 
motion to  the  next  higher  grade  because  of  the  advanced  work 
they  have  been  able  to  do.  This  scheme  lends  an  element  of 
flexibility  to  grading  and  in  so  far  is  good,  but  it  fails  at  the 
point  of  greatest  need.  Backward,  extremely  over-age  and 
retarded  pupils  need  special  treatment  that  can  be  made  to 
continue  longer  than  one  semester.  They  require  rooms  spec- 
ially equipped  for  their  purpose  but  most  of  all  they  must  have 


76  School  Adjustment 

teachers  with  sympathetic,  broadly  social  outlook — teachers  who 
can  be  free  to  study  individual  cases  and  provide  appropriate 
training. 

Summary 

1.  The  Stanton- Arthur  School  is  housed  in  two  buildings  of 
16  and  18  divisions  respectively.  The  Stanton  building  ac- 
commodates white  and  colored  pupils  (59%  colored)  in  Grades  1 
to  8.  The  Arthur  building  accommodates  colored  pupils  in 
Grades  1-5. 

2.  Pupils  are  admitted  by  promotion  from  other  schools  into 
Grades  5  and  7.  Hence  the  proportion  of  higher  grade  pupils 
is  greater  than  would  obtain  in  a  normal  distribution. 

3.  (a)  Residence  and  census  tabulation  for  the  school  com- 
munity includes  70%  of  Stanton-Arthur  pupilage. 

(b)  The  section  includes  two  parochial  schools  for  white 
children  and  a  pubUc  primary  school  for  colored  pupils. 

(c)  A  larger  proportion  of  colored  than  of  white  children 
in  the  district  is  enrolled  in  the  Stanton-Arthur  School. 

(d)  White  pupils  from  outside  this  section  come  to  the  school 
because  of  the  lack  of  upper  grade  accommodations  in  their 
neighborhoods.  Colored  pupils  come  to  the  Stanton-Arthur 
School  from  great  distances  to  avoid  colored  teachers  or  schools 
where  their  color  will  tend  to  make  them  conspicuous. 

4.  Pupil  turn-over  in  the  school  is  excessive  because  of  shift- 
ing of  population,  immigration  and  early  withdrawal. 

5.  Negro  pupils  from  the  South  cannot  be  properly  classified 
in  regular  grades. 

6.  Average  attendance  for  the  school  is  four  points  lower 
than  that  for  the  city  as  a  whole.  In  the  cases  of  absence 
investigated,  illness,  indifferent  parents  and  truancy  are  the 
chief  causes. 

7.  One  hundred  seventy-four  formal  warnings  of  prosecution 
and  fifty-five  actual  prosecutions  of  indifferent  parents  besides 
many  interv  ews  with  the  Attendance  Supervisor  and  Prin- 
cipal were  necessary  to  enforce  the  Compulsory  Attendance 
Law. 

8.  Continued  absence  of  pupils  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  of 
failure  in  school  work. 

9  Over-age  pupils  in  the  Stanton-Arthur  School  constitute 
36.1%  of  the  total  as  against  an  average  of  26.4%  over-age  in 
the  city  as  a  whole. 


Pupilage  77 

10.  Over-age  for  grade  is  42%  for  colored  pupils  of  the  school 
and  19%  for  white  pupils. 

11.  Extreme  over-ageness  is  confined  largely  to  colored  pupils 
and  is  caused  by  late  entrance  and  irregular  attendance. 

12.  In  age-grad.'  statistics  by  half-years,  colored  pupils  show 
lower  per  cents  under  age  and  normal  age  and  higher  per  cents 
over-age. 

13.  Colored  pupils  over-age  are  nearly  twice  the  number  of 
normal  age.     Fewer  white  pupils  are  over-age  than  normal. 

14.  Of  colored  pupils  24%  are  two  years  or  more  over-age; 
of  white  pupils  9.3%. 

15.  Pupils  showing  accelerated  progress  constitute  7.4%  of 
white  and  4.5%  of  colored  pupils.  55.5%  of  white  and  60.5% 
of  colored  pupils  are  retarded. 

16.  The  relatively  good  showing  of  colored  pupils  is  caused 
largely  by  the  selection  of  elimination. 

17.  The  difference  of  5%  in  retardation  per  cents  is  confined 
to  the  upper  ranges — over-age  two  years  or  more — colored 
pupils  16.3%,  white  pupils  11.6%. 

18.  The  environmental  conditions  surrounding  retarded  pupils 
are  in  nearly  all  cases  poor  and  unstimulating. 

19.  One  hundred  nine  pupils  not  included  in  the  age-progress 
tabulation  because  of  incomplete  records  show  extreme  retar- 
dation. 

20.  Beside  these  109  pupils,  the  most  pronounced  cases  of 
maladjustment  have  been  placed  in  a  special  group  for  indi- 
vidual instruction. 

21.  The  most  acute  cases  of  sub-normality  and  mental  de- 
ficiency are  segregated  in  an  Orthogenic  Backward  class.  Many 
of  these  cases  should  receive  institutional  care. 

22.  At  once  a  cause  and  result  of  excessive  over-ageness 
and  retardation  is  seen  in  the  school's  promotion  rates  which 
average  75%. 

23.  The  tendency  to  rigid  administration  of  a  uniform  co\irse 
of  study  with  large  groups  of  pupils  tends  to  perpetrate  this 
condition. 

24.  Reforms  are  desirable  in  the  way  of  flexible  grading, 
varying  time  schedules  and  rates  of  progress,  adaptation  of 
work  to  capacity  and  physiological  maturity. 


CHAPTER  IV 

STANDARD  ATTAINMENTS 

One  measure  of  the  success  with  which  a  school  is  approxi- 
mating the  fullest  achievement  of  its  educational  aim  may  be 
read  in  the  attainments  of  its  pupils.  Relative  rather  than 
absolute  attainment  should  be  the  criterion.  Without  having 
first  definitely  determined  the  kind,  quality  and  amount  of 
work  to  be  done  by  each  pupil  and  each  homogeneous  group  of 
pupils,  indeed  without  having  first  insured  at  least  relative 
homogeneity  in  the  grouping  of  pupils  with  regard  to  particular 
capacities,  it  is  misleading  to  compare  attainments  either  with 
standards  which  have  been  set  up,  or  with  central  tendencies 
registered  by  groups  working  under  different  conditions.  From 
the  foregoing  study  of  external  and  internal  standard  conditions 
surrounding  the  Stanton-Arthur  school,  it  is  plain  that  classi- 
fications, operations,  schedules,  and  rate  of  work  are  not  suffi- 
ciently differentiated  to  bring  about  for  each  individual  the 
maximum  approximation  of  achievement  to  capacity.  These 
conditions  tend  at  once  to  obstruct  completely  satisfactory 
achievement  and  to  emphasize  and  widen  variations.  How- 
ever, in  spite  of  these  difficulties,  the  best  general  measure  of 
pupil  attainment  is  found  in  the  use  of  standardized  test  ma- 
terial. 

Courtis  Tests  in  Arithmetic 

The  achievements  of  pupils  in  the  fundamentals  of  arith- 
metic are  indicated  in  the  results  of  the  Courtis  Standard  Tests 
in  Arithmetic,  Series  B.  The  complete  returns  for  the  school 
for  both  rate  and  accuracy  in  each  operation  are  given  in  Table 
XXX. 

The  group  containing  the  median  performance  is  printed  in 
bold  type.  In  rate  of  work  the  medians  show  a  fairly  regular 
progression  from  grade  four  to  grade  eight  though  there  is  a 
wide  spread  of  achievements  in  every  grade  and  consequently 
much  overlapping.  It  will  be  noted,  for  example,  in  eighth 
grade  addition  that  one  pupil  attempted  only  two  examples 
while  two  pupils  attempted  as  many  as  eighteen. 

78 


Standard  Attainments 


79 


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80 


School  Adjustment 


In  accuracy  the  same  improvement  from  grade  to  grade  is 
not  noticeable,  but  this  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  each  in- 
terval in  the  table  represents  a  span  of  ten  points  on  a  per  cent 
scale.  In  addition  to  this  it  must  be  remembered  that  per 
cents  of  accuracy  are  calculated  upon  an  increasing  number  of 
attempts  as  the  grades  advance.  However,  with  the  exception 
of  90%  accuracy,  which  can  be  attained  only  by  those  pupils 
who  attempt  ten  or  more  examples,  every  degree  of  accuracy  is 
represented  in  every  grade  in  each  operation.  In  every  grade, 
then,  for  both  rate  and  accuracy,  the  tables  show  a  wide  range 
of  attainment.  This  condition  is  important  in  any  considera- 
tion of  medians  or  central  tendencies. 

Table  XXXI 

Median  Scores — Courtis  Standard  Tests — Arithmetic  Series  B 
Stanton-Arthur  School  March  and  June  Scores  and  Courtis  Gen.  Medians 


Addition 

Sub 
Rate 

traction 

% 
Accuracy 

Multiphcation 

D 

Rate 

ivision 

Grade 

Rate 

% 
Accuracy 

Rate 

% 
Accuracy 

% 
Accuracy 

IV 

March  Scores 
June  Scores 
Courtis  Gen. 

4.6 
6.6 
7.4 

65 
68 
64 

5.4 
6.6 
7.4 

65 

79 
80 

4.6 
5.6 
6.2 

64 
73 
67 

3.0 
3.7 
4.6 

42 
57 
57 

V 

March  Scores 
June  Scores 
Courtis  Gen. 

4.4 
7.6 
8.6 

73 
70 
70 

5.9 
6.9 
9.0 

80 
84 
83 

5.3 
6.8 
7.5 

73 
70 
75 

4.2 
4.7 
6.1 

67 
70 

77 

VI 

March  Scores 
June  Scores 
Courtis  Gen. 

6.4 

8.5 
9.8 

71 

76 
73 

7.7 

8.4 

10.3 

78 
86 
85 

7.5 
7.8 
9.1 

78 
82 
78 

5.3 

6.7 

8.2 

81 

88 
87 

VII 

March  Scores 
June  Scores 
Courtis  Gen. 

7.6 

9.8 

10.9 

70 
76 
75 

8.9 
10.7 
11.6 

83 

88 
86 

8.5 
10.0 
10.2 

80 
79 
80 

6.4 
7.9 
9.6 

83 
90 

90 

VIII 

March  Scores 
June  Scores 
Courtis  Gen. 

8.1 
10.4 
11.6 

73 
75 

76 

9.9 
11.2 
12.9 

86 
89 

87 

9.7 
11.5 
11.5 

81 
87 
81 

7.5 
10.2 
10.7 

87 
97 
91 

The  scores  presented  in  Table  XXX  represent  the  achieve- 
ments of  pupils  in  March  and  hence  are  not  exactly  comparable 
with  the  Courtis  General  Medians  which  are  calculated  from 
June  scores. 

Another  form  of  the  same  test  was  therefore  administered 
in  June.  In  Table  XXXI  are  shown  the  median  scores  for  both 
March  and  June,  together  with  the  Courtis  general  medians. 


Standard  Attainn2ents  81 

Comparison  of  these  March  and  June  median  scores  shows 
that  marked  progress  was  made  in  the  three  months  period 
intervening.  This  progress  was  greatest  and  most  general  in 
rate  of  work.  The  number  of  examples  attempted  increased 
in  every  operation  in  all  grades.  An  advance  in  accuracy  is 
shown  in  every  case  except  fifth  grade  addition  and  fifth  and 
seventh  grade  multiphcation.  These  June  scores  represent  the 
achievements  of  pupils  not  only  at  the  close  of  the  term's  work 
but  at  the  completion  of  a  three  months  period  of  special  drill 
on  the  fundamental  operations.  To  what  degree  the  achieve- 
ments here  represented  indicate  permanent  ability  it  is  difficult 
to  say,  but  it  is  at  least  safe  to  assert  that  these  June  scores 
were  made  under  favorable  circumstances  and  that  they  prob- 
ably are  higher  than  would  be  obtained  under  average  condi- 
tions. 

Notwithstanding  these  unusually  propitious  conditions,  it  will 
be  seen  on  examination  of  the  table  that  in  rate  of  work  the 
school  medians  average  one  or  more  examples  lower  than  the 
Courtis  general  medians.  In  accuracy  a  somewhat  better 
showing  is  made,  the  medians  for  the  school  exceeding  those 
of  Courtis  in  eleven  of  the  twenty  cases.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  accuracy  for  the  school  is  calculated  on 
a  base  of  fewer  examples  attempted  than  is  the  case  for  the 
Courtis  medians. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  tests  were  given  originally  in  the 
Stanton  School  in  March,  they  were  also  administered  under 
identical  conditions  in  six  other  Philadelphia  public  schools. 
Four  of  these  schools  are  so  located  as  to  draw  pupilage  from 
representative  white  communities  and  two  schools  are  made  up 
entirely  of  negro  pupils.  Results  of  the  tests  in  the  seven 
schools  show  marked  divergence.  Three  of  the  lowest  school 
medians  (fifth  grade  addition  and  multiphcation  and  eighth 
grade  subtraction)  are  contributed  by  the  Stanton  School  and 
the  school  is  consistently  below  the  median  for  the  group  of 
schools  tested.  That  the  reason  for  these  low  scores  lies  in  the 
character  of  the  pupilage  of  the  school  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that,  of  the  twenty  lowest  medians,  sixteen  are  contributed  by 
the  three  schools  whose  pupils  are  entirely  or  predominantly 
negro.  These  schools  contribute  only  two  of  the  highest  school 
medians.     In  the  June  test,  the  negro  schools  furnished  eighteen 


82 


School  Adjustment 


of  the  twenty  lowest  medians  and  only  two  of  the  highest. 
This  situation  indicates  that  the  results  in  the  Stanton  School 
were  uniformly  lower  than  in  the  four  white  schools  and  gen- 
erally higher  than  in  the  two  schools  serving  entirely  negro 
pupilage. 

In  order  to  confirm  the  above  generalization  as  to  the  rela- 
tive performance  of  white  and  negro  pupils,  an  analysis  was  made 
of  the  June  results  attained  by  pupils  of  the  Stanton  School. 
The  scores  for  white  and  negro  pupils  were  tabulated  separately 

Table  XXXII 

Courtis  Standard  Tests  in  Arithmetic — Series  B 

Median  Scores  of  White  and  Negro  Pwpils — Grades  6-8 


Number 

of 
Pupils 

Addition 

Subtraction 

Multiplication 

Division 

Grade 

Rate 

% 
Accuracy 

Rate 

% 
Accuracy 

Rate 

% 
Accuracy 

Rate 

% 
Accuracy 

VI 

37  White 
114  Negro 

Difference 

49  White 
77  Negro 

Difference 

50  White 
46  Negro 

Difference 

8.6 
8.3 

78.0 
75.5 

8.8 
8.2 

86.7 
86.6 

9.2 

7.5 

81.8 
82.3 

7.5 
6.0 

100.0 
86.4 

VII 

.3 

10.4 
9.6 

2.5 

78.5 
72.5 

.6 

10.5 
10.8 

.1 

93.6 

85.5 

1.7 

10.0 
10.1 

—  .5 

84.5 
76.9 

1.5 

8.7 
7.8 

13.6 

97.5 
87.6 

VIII 

.8 

10.9 
10.1 

6.0 

80.0 
70.0 

—  .3 

11.5 
11.0 

8.1 

89.2 
88.0 

—  .1 

11.3 
11.7 

7.6 

88.2 
87.1 

.9 

11.0 
9.5 

9.9 

95.0 
93.3 

.8 

10.0 

.5 

1.2 

—  .4 

1.1 

1.5 

1.7 

Note:  —  indicates  negro  pupils  in  advance  of  whites. 

and  the  resulting  medians  are  presented  in  Table  XXXII. 
The  numbers  of  white  pupils  in  grades  four  and  five  were  so 
small  as  to  make  comparison  impossible.  Hence  only  grades 
six,  seven  and  eight  appear  in  this  study.  It  will  be  noted  in 
the  table  that  the  median  achievement  of  white  pupils  is  in 
advance  of  that  for  negro  pupils  in  twenty-four  of  the  twenty- 
eight  cases,  Negro  pupils  show  slightly  higher  accuracy  in 
sixth  grade  multiplication  and  higher  rate  in  seventh  grade 
subtraction  and  multiplication,  and  in  eighth  grade  multipli- 
cation. The  consistent  difference  here  indicated  is  remarkable 
in  view  of  the  facts  that  a  conscious  attempt  is  made  to  classify 
pupils  uniformly  within  grades  so  far  as  standard  conditions 


Standard  Attainments 


83 


permit,  and  that  a  finer  selection  of  negro  than  of  white  pupils 
obtains  in  the  upper  grades.  These  results  were  obtained  in 
June  at  the  close  of  a  period  of  intensive  drill  in  which  special 
attention  was  given  to  those  pupils  who  had  been  doing  notably 
poor  work.  In  spite  of  the  effort  to  obtain  uniform  classification 
within  the  limits  prescribed,  and  to  effect  uniformity  of  attain- 
ment through  special  drill  with  the  slower  pupils,  it  is  seen 
that  negro  pupils  generally  achieve  somew^hat  lower  results  in 
fundamentals  of  arithmetic  than  do  the  whites. 

Table  XXXIII 

Monroe  Standardized  Reasoning  Tests  in  Arithmetic 


Test  III 

Test  II 

Test  II 

Test  I 

Score 

Grade  8A 

Grade  7 

Grade  6 

Grade  5 

Intervals 

Principle 

Answers 

Principle 

Answers 

Principle 

Answers 

Principle 

Answers 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

29-30 

1 

3 

27-28 

2 

1 

3 

25-26 

1 

1 

1 

3 

23-24 

1 

2 

1 

2 

4 

21-22 

2 

8 

3 

1 

1 

2 

9 

2 

19-20 

1 

1 

7 

6 

2 

1 

2 

1 

8 

1 

1 

17-18 

1 

10 

11 

4 

2 

2 

1 

2 

1 

3 

3 

1 

15-16 

3 

3 

1 

7 

12 

4 

3 

2 

4 

2 

2 

5 

4 

1 

4 

13-14 

5 

4 

3 

13 

13 

6 

11 

2 

6 

1 

3 

3 

10 

1 

9 

11-12 

8 

7 

9 

12 

17 

6 

7 

15 

2 

4 

1 

12 

3 

11 

9-10 

2 

7 

2 

1 

6 

13 

15 

17 

8 

15 

8 

16 

1 

7 

3 

13 

7-  8 

2 

6 

4 

4 

5 

8 

9 

16 

5 

24 

6 

23 

2 

9 

4 

12 

5-  6 

1 

5 

11 

9 

5 

4 

12 

15 

2 

25 

6 

24 

1 

3 

3 

15 

3-  4 

2 

1 

1 

9 

2 

1 

5 

10 

1 

11 

3 

24 

1 

3 

2 

10 

1-  2 

6 

10 
1 

1 

2 

3 
1 

5 
1 

4 

2 

8 
2 

7 
2 

10 

2 

Totals 

28 

34 

28 

34 

79 

86 

79 

86 

31 

108 

31 

108 

21 

90 

21 

90 

Medians 

12 

10 

6 

4 

14 

13 

10 

8 

11 

8 

8 

6 

15 

13 

10 

8 

Standards 

18.1 

9. 

4 

19.6 

13 

.6 

12 

.6 

9 

8 

15.6 

9 

6 

Reasoning  Tests  in  Arithmetic 
An  attempt  to  measure  reasoning  ability  in  arithmetic  was 
made  through  the  use  of  the  Monroe  Standardized  Reasoning 
Tests  in  Arithmetic* 

In  so  far  as  these  tests  measure  reasoning  ability,  the  results 
may  be  taken  as  a  rough  indication  of  relative  efficiency  in  the 
exercise  of  the  higher  mental  powers.     Since  it  is  in  this  general 

*  Monroe,  W.  S.     Measuring  the  Results  of  Teaching,  pp.  160  et  seq. 


84  School  Adjustment 

field  of  activity  that  scientific  investigation  points  to  the  great- 
est divergence  of  attainments  on  the  parts  of  the  white  and 
the  negro,  the  achievements  of  pupils  in  the  Stanton-Arthur 
school  are  presented  by  races  in  Table  XXXIII. 

Only  two  grades  took  the  same  test.  Hence  the  results 
are  not  exactly  comparable  between  grades  except  in  the  case 
of  grades  six  and  seven,  both  of  which  took  Test  II.  Examina- 
tion of  the  score  distributions  shows  a  wide  range  of  achieve- 
ment for  both  white  and  negro  pupils  in  all  grades  for  both 
correct  principle  and  answers.  There  is  evidence  here  of  im- 
proper and  inefiicient  grading  and  classification  of  pupils  and 
strong  reason  for  the  provision  of  such  time  schedules  and  de- 
spatching as  will  enable  teachers  to  adjust  the  work  to  the 
needs  and  capacities  of  individuals  or  small  homogeneous  groups 
of  pupils. 

Disregarding  this  great  variation  of  achievement,  it  will  be 
noted  from  the  median  scores  that,  in  general,  the  white  pupils 
are  everywhere  in  advance  of  the  negro  pupils.  This  superi- 
ority ranges  from  14%  to  37%  in  median  scores  for  principle 
and  from  25%  to  50%  in  correct  answers. 

Compared  with  the  standard  scores  determined  by  Dr.  Mon- 
roe from  the  results  of  testing  some  5000  children,  the  achieve- 
ments of  both  classes  of  pupils  here  presented  are  low.  How- 
ever, some  reason  for  the  poor  showing  of  the  white  pupils  may 
be  found  in  their  classification  into  relatively  large  groups, 
comprised  in  the  main  of  pupils  whose  powers  of  reflective  think- 
ing are  such  as  to  retard  the  forward  movement  of  the  entire 
class.  The  relative  position  of  median  scores  indicates  that 
in  general  white  pupils  show  an  achievement  half-way  between 
that  of  the  negro  pupils  and  the  standard  scores.  This  is  true 
for  both  reasoning  and  calculation. 

As  has  been  indicated,  one  of  the  chief  abilities  measured  by 
the  "correct  principle"  scores  is  that  of  reading  with  under- 
standing. The  ability  of  the  pupil  to  gather  thought  from  the 
printed  page  is  the  first  essential  in  the  solution  of  arithmetical 
problems.  It  is  not  easy  to  isolate  this  quality,  however,  be- 
cause of  the  added  difficulty  presented  by  the  technical  terms 
of  the  problem  and  the  further  necessity  of  using  both  the 
thoughts  presented  by  the  text  and  the  technical  terms  as  a 
basis  for  the  complex  process  of  reasoning.     All  three  of  these 


Standard  Attainments  85 

elements  must  operate  successfully  in  combination,  in  order 
that  a  proper  solution  ensue.  The  isolation  of  these  elements 
is  a  prerequisite  to  the  efficient  application  of  remedial  measures. 
These  must  be  directed  to  the  weaknesses  displayed  by  indi- 
viduals in  one  or  another  of  the  necessary  elements. 

Silent  Reading  Tests 

An  effort  to  isolate  one  of  these  three  qualities — ability  to 
read  with  understanding — is  made  by  the  same  author  in  his 
Standardized  Silent  Reading  Tests.*  Something  more  than 
ordinary  understanding  of  the  printed  page  is  required  to  secure 
correct  answers  and  the  comprehension  score.  The  pupil  must 
analyze  situations  presented,  weigh  alternatives  and  follow 
directions  implicitly.  All  of  these  are  elements  in  the  com- 
prehension of  some  sorts  of  texts  but  their  inclusion  here  puts 
the  tests  on  a  distinctly  higher  plane  than  the  type  of  under- 
standing required  for  the  ordinary  appreciation  of  a  description 
or  narration.  On  the  other  hand,  this  type  of  test  avoids  the 
complication  presented  by  requiring  pupils  to  reproduce  the 
essential  points  of  the  text  and  offers  better  conditions  for 
uniform  scoring  of  papers. 

The  results  of  the  test  in  grades  4  to  8  of  the  Stanton- Arthur 
School  together  with  the  standard  scores  presented  by  Dr. 
Monroe  are  given  in  Table  XXXIV.  Median  scores 
for  the  tests  are  lower  in  every  grade  than  the  standards,  though 
white  pupils  approximate  these  standards  more  closely  than  do 
negro  pupils.  The  greatest  disparity  in  results  is  found  in 
grades  four  and  five  where  Test  I  was  used.  In  both  rate  and 
comprehension  scores,  Stanton-Arthur  pupils  are  far  below  the 
standards  in  these  grades.  In  rate  of  reading,  the  scores  of 
fourth  grade  white  pupils  are  not  quite  half-way  between  the 
standards  of  grades  three  and  four,  while  fourth  grade  negro 
pupils  are  far  below  even  the  third  grade  standard.  In  com- 
prehension, fourth  grade  white  pupils  just  equal  the  standard 
score  for  grade  three,  while  negro  pupils  are  slightly  below  the 
standard.  The  difficulty  here  indicated  in  silent  reading  for 
comprehension  may  be  due  largely  to  the  use  of  a  synthetic 
or  word  method  of  teaching  reading  in  the  lower  grades.  Too 
great  emphasis  is  placed  upon  word  calling  to  the  exclusion  of 

*  Monroe,  W.  S.     Op.  cit.,  pp.  22  et  seq. 


86 


School  Adjustment 


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72 
05 

Standard  Attainments  87 

the  proper  development  of  the  power  of  reading  phrases  and  of 
getting  thought  from  the  printed  page. 

Some  trace  of  this  handicap  may  be  seen  also  in  the  results 
shown  by  grade  five.  In  rate  of  reading,  white  pupils  have  a 
median  score  half-way  between  the  standards  for  grades  four 
and  five,  so  that  they  may  be  said  to  be  retarded  one-half  year 
in  their  development.  The  median  score  of  negro  pupils  is 
half-way  between  the  standards  of  grades  three  and  four,  show- 
ing them  to  be  one  and  one-half  years  retarded  and  a  full  year 
behind  the  achievement  of  the  white  pupils  with  whom  they  are 
classified.  In  comprehension  white  pupils  are  only  slightly  in 
advance  of  the  fourth  grade  standard,  while  negro  pupils  are 
W'ell  below  fourth  grade  standards  and  at  least  a  half  year 
behind  their  white  classmates. 

In  grades  six,  seven  and  eight  where  Test  II  was  given,  the 
rate  scores  of  white  pupils  approximate  Monroe  standards, 
w^hile  negro  pupils  lag  behind  to  a  degree  amounting  to  a  half- 
year  or  more  of  progress.  In  comprehension,  negro  pupils  are 
three  times  as  far  below  standard  scores  as  are  the  white  pupils. 
The  eighth  grade  negro  median  is  only  shghtly  in  advance  of 
the  sixth  grade  standard  and  is  somewhat  below  the  seventh 
grade  median  of  white  pupils  of  the  school. 

The  generally  lower  grade  of  attainment  of  negro  pupils  in 
fundamentals  and  reasoning  in  arithmetic,  and  in  rate  and 
comprehension  in  reading  seems  to  be  significant  of  failure 
properly  to  classify  pupils  within  grades.  However,  when  it  is 
considered  that  advanced  age  and  'terms  of  service'  in  a  given 
grade  are  important  considerations  in  determining  the  pro- 
motion of  pupils,  the  paradox  appears  that  these  retarded  indi- 
viduals are  in  reality  accelerated,  while  younger,  normal-progress 
pupils  are  at  least  relatively  retarded.  An  element  of  diversity 
is  therefore  introduced  in  the  very  attempt  at  uniformity  of 
classification  under  such  circumstances  as  the  standard  con- 
ditions prescribe.  Older  pupils,  more  mature  physically  and 
mentally,  though  pedagogically  retarded,  are  grouped  perforce 
with  younger,  brighter,  but  more  immature  individuals.  This 
condition  is  bound  to  bring  about  diversity  of  attainment  in 
school  subjects. 


88  School  Adjustment 

Trabue  Language  Scale 
Some  indication  of  the  effects  of  this  situation  may  be  seen 
in  the  results  of  a  test  in  the  completion  of  mutilated  sentences. 
The  Trabue  Completion  Test  Language  Scale  B  was  adminis- 
tered in  the  school  with  results  as  shown  in  Table  XXXV. 


Table  XXXV 
Trabue  Language  Scale — B 


Grade 

Score 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

W. 

N. 

20 

19 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

1 
1 
4 
2 
7 
3 
5 
1 

1 

4 
3 
9 
6 

20 
5 

10 
1 
4 

6 

1 

4 
6 
4 
6 
5 
1 

1 

1 

7 

4 

5 

18 

23 

13 

23 

5 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

11 

17 

14 

8 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

12 

23 

10 

8 

6 

3 

1 

1 
1 

3 
2 
7 
12 
6 
4 
6 
2 
1 

1 

2 
1 
1 
6 
4 
7 
13 
1 
4 
1 
2 

Total 
Median 

Q* 

Trabue  Stand. 

25 
10.4 
1.6 
9 

68 
10.4 
1.6 
6 

28 
12.5 
1.35 
11 

104 
12.4 
1.4 
.0 

65 
13.2 
1.15 
12 

70 
13.3 
1.3 
.3 

46 
14.3 
1.55 
13 

42 
13.0 
1.6 
.3 

*  Semi-interquartile  range. 

The  median  scores  are  in  every  grade  slightly  in  advance  of 
the  standards  suggested  by  the  author  of  the  scale.*  This  is 
due  partly  to  the  recent  introduction  of  a  new  course  of  study 
in  English  which  stresses  such  exercises  as  are  represented  in 
the  Completion  Test.  The  medians  for  negro  and  white  pupils 
are  practically  identical  in  grades  five,  six  and  seven,  while  in 
grade  eight  white  pupils  exceed  the  median  achievement  of 
negro  pupils  by  10%.  Variability  as  indicated  by  Q  also  shows 
remarkable  uniformity. 

*  Completion  Test  Language  Scales,  M.  R.  Trabue. 


Standard  Attainments  89 

Distribution  of  the  scores  of  sixth  grade  pupils  by  age  shows 
again  a  notable  uniformity  of  achievement  at  various  ages. 
Here  is  a  probable  explanation  of  the  uniformity  of  results 
of  negro  and  white  pupils.  We  would  expect  such  results  to 
be  uniform  in  a  test  which  showed  median  achievement  for 
fifteen-year-old  sixth  grade  pupils  to  be  equal  to  that  of  eleven- 
year-olds  in  the  same  grade.  The  tests,  it  would  seem,  support 
the  teacher  in  her  classification  of  pupils.  This  view  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  author  as  a  result  of  his  own  investigation.! 
However,  while  the  results  of  the  Trabue  tests  have  shown 
high  coefficients  of  correlation  with  teachers'  estimates  and  tests 
of  mental  abiUty,  their  correlation  with  tests  of  achievement 
in  fundamental  arithmetic  is  either  very  low  or  negative. 

Ayres  Spelling  Scale 

Spelling  is  usually  taught  and  tested  in  context.  For  this 
reason  there  would  have  been  an  advantage  in  using  a  sentence 
test  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  the  spelHng  achievements  of 
pupils  in  the  school.  However,  because  of  the  greater  definite- 
ness  of  standards  for  column  spelling  tests,  the  latter  form  was 
used. 

The  test  given  in  the  school  consisted  of  twenty-five  words 
taken  from  Group  T  of  the  Ayres  Spelling  Scale.  These  words 
were  selected  by  the  Division  of  Reference  and  Research  of 
the  New  York  City  Department  of  Education  for  the  purpose 
of  testing  spelHng  achievement  in  the  schools  of  Districts  45 
and  46  of  that  city.  The  words  possess,  then,  the  double  advan- 
tage of  the  Ayres  standardization  and  the  New  York  verifi- 
cation. The  scores  obtained  in  the  spelling  of  the  selected 
list  of  words  are  presented  in  detail  in  Table  XXXVI.  There 
is  wide  variation  in  achievement,  especially  in  grades  five  and 
six.  The  words  were  not  sufficiently  difficult  to  serve  as  a 
satisfactory  test  of  the  ability  of  the  better  spellers  in  grac|es 
seven  and  eight.  However,  both  these  conditions  are  identical 
wdth  those  of  the  Ayres  test  and  that  given  in  Richmond  Bor- 
ough on  the  same  words. 

Median  scores  attained  by  Stanton-Arthur  pupils  are  in 
every   case   lower   than   those   of   Richmond   Borough   pupils, 

t  See  Los  Angeles  Division  of  Ed.  Research — Second  Year  Book,  p.  40. 
Results  generally  in  advance  of  Trabue  Standards. 


90 


School  Adjustment 


though  the  differences  are  slight,  except  in  grade  five,  where 
the  median  scores  of  Stanton  pupils  are  more  than  four  words 
below  those  of  Richmond  Borough. 

Table  XXXVI 
Distribution  of  Spelling  Scores  by  Grades 


Scores  in 

words 

5A 

5B 

6A 

6B 

7A 

7B 

8A 

8B 

Total 

25 

1 

7 

10 

11 

9 

38 

24 

1 

2 

5 

5 

11 

11 

16 

51 

23 

2 

8 

4 

9 

11 

8 

42 

22 

1 

1 

9 

7 

5 

7 

7 

37 

21 

1 

6 

6 

3 

9 

2 

6 

33 

20 

2 

5 

4 

6 

3 

7 

3 

30 

19 

2 

2 

8 

8 

7 

3 

1 

1 

32 

18 

4 

2 

3 

5 

4 

3 

1 

22 

17 

1 

5 

7 

5 

3 

21 

16 

1 

5 

8 

6 

5 

2 

2 

1 

30 

15 

1 

2 

8 

4 

15 

14 

5 

8 

1 

6 

2 

3 

1 

26 

13 

3 

4 

3 

3 

4 

1 

18 

12 

3 

4 

4 

3 

2 

1 

17 

11 

8 

4 

2 

1 

3 

1 

1 

20 

10 

1 

4 

4 

1 

1 

11 

9 

3 

3 

5 

2 

1 

14 

8 

4 

3 

1 

2 

1 

11 

7 

2 

9 

6 

1 

2 

1 

21 

6 

5 

5 

2 

2 

14 

5 

10 

7 

2 

19 

4 

6 

5 

1 

1 

13 

3 

8 

5 

5 

1 

19 

2 

6 

4 

2 

1 

13 

1 

6 

1 

7 

0. 

4 

4 

Total 

79 

81 

81 

86 

74 

66 

58 

53 

578 

Stanton  Medians 

6.0 

10.0 

16.0 

18.0 

19.4 

22.4 

23.4 

23.9 

Richmond  Borough 

Medians 

10.7 

14.2 

17.8 

20.3 

21.4 

22.6 

23.6 

24.0 

Ayres'  Standard 

Scores 

50 

66 

79 

88 

Richmond  Borough 

Average  Scores 

48 

.9 

70 

.0 

81 

.1 

89 

.6 

Stanton  Average 

Scores 

34 

.6 

61 

.9 

77 

.3 

88 

.6 

Stanton  Medians  by 

Race— White 

11 

.3 

19 

.6 

20 

.7 

23 

.7 

Negro 

7 

.3 

16 

.1 

21 

.1 

23 

.4 

The  Ayres  standard  scores  are  given  in  per  cents  by  complete 
grades.  These  are  presented  in  the  table  together  with  the 
average  per  cent  scores  of  the  two  groups  considered  here.  It 
will  be  noted  that  Richmond  Borough  scores  are  above  the 


Standard  Attainments  91 

Ayres  standard  in  grades  six,  seven  and  eight,  while  Stanton 
scores  exceed  that  standard  only  in  grade  eight.  In  grade  five, 
the  Stanton  scores  are  notably  low. 

Distribution  of  the  Stanton  scores  on  a  basis  of  race  indi- 
cates that  in  grades  five  and  six  the  white  pupils  are  in  advance 
of  the  negro  pupils  to  an  extent  equal  to  or  greater  than  the 
difference  between  the  scores  of  the  Stanton  School  and  the 
schools  of  Richmond  Borough  (Table  XXXVI).  Indeed  white 
pupils  equal  or  exceed  the  Richmond  Borough  medians,  while 
medians  for  negro  pupils  are  respectively  4  and  3.5  words  below 
those  for  whites.  In  grades  seven  and  eight,  where  the  finer 
selection  of  negro  pupils  obtains,  there  is  a  practical  equality  of 
achievement. 

Intelligence  Tests 

In  an  attempt  to  secure  an  indication  of  mental  capacity  as 
shown  by  Intelligence  Tests,  and  at  the  same  time  to  cooperate 
with  Government  psychologists  in  the  standardization  of  army 
intelhgence  tests,  the  Thorndike  Air  Service  Tests  of  Mental 
Alertness  for  Enlisted  Men  were  administered  by  assistants  of 
Dr.  Thorndike  to  the  pupils  of  grades  6,  7  and  8  in  the  Stanton 
School.  These  tests  consisted  of  a  series  of  eight  distinct  units, 
covering  involved  directions,  simple  problems  in  arithmetic, 
synonyms  and  antonyms,  practical  judgment,  detecting  highest 
and  lowest  number  in  series,  noting  relationships  and  continu- 
ing interrupted  series  of  numbers,  visual  imagery  (identifying 
a  given  character  from  among  a  group),  and  logical  relation- 
ships. In  addition  to  this  test,  there  was  also  apphed  an  illit- 
erate test  in  order  that  it  might  be  standardized  for  army  use.* 
The  results  were  tabulated  by  Dr.  Thorndike's  assistants, 
though  the  work  of  developing  standards  and  discovering  cor- 
relations with  results  of  Binet  Intelligence  Tests  and  school 
progress  records  was  interrupted  by  the  conclusion  of  the  war. 
Because  such  standards  have  not  been  established  and  since 
the  intelligence  test  used  has  been  materially  modified,  it  was 
deem.ed  unwise  to  present  individual  results  in  this  paper, 
though  it  will  be  interesting  to  note  in  Table  XXX VII  that 
median  scores  are  in  every  case  less  than  half  of  the  total  possible 
score  (145  points)  and  that  the  highest  score  achieved  by  an 
eighth  grade  pupil  is  104. 

*  Thorndike,  E.  L.     Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  April,  1919. 


92 


School  Adjustment 


It  is  probable  that  the  test  in  general  was  too  difficult  for 
elementary  pupils,  that  the  time  allotment  was  too  brief,  or 
that  directions  were  not  thoroughly  understood.  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  the  results  of  these  tests  can  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  the 
mental  ability  of  the  pupils  tested,  but  it  is  entirely  proper 
to  use  them  as  a  measure  of  variation  in  the  mental  abihties 
tested.  It  will  be  noted  in  the  Table  that  this  range  of  varia- 
tion is  great  in  every  case  and  may  be  used  in  support  of  figures 
already  presented,  showing  wide  variation  in  achievement  in 
school  work. 

Table  XXXVII 

Thorndike  Air  Service  Tests  of  Mental 
Alertness 


Grade 

Scores 

6 

7 

8 

High  Score 

70 

87 

104 

Q3 

46 

60 

65 

Median 

39 

50 

57 

Ql 

28 

42 

50 

Low  Score 

6 

15 

22 

An  examination  of  the  score  distributions  indicates  that  the 
range  of  the  middle  50%  is  narrow  and  that  there  is  wide  scatter- 
ing in  both  the  lower  and  upper  quartiles  of  the  distribution. 
It  will  be  noted  in  Table  XXXVII  that  approximately  20% 
of  the  sixth  grade  scores  are  above  the  median  of  the  seventh 
grade  and  that  30%  of  the  seventh  grade  scores  are  above 
the  eighth  grade  median.  On  the  other  hand,  10%  of  the 
eighth  grade  scores  are  below  the  sixth  grade  median  and  20% 
of  the  seventh  grade  scores  are  below  that  median.  The  achieve- 
ments represented  by  scores  in  the  middle  50%  are  sufficiently 
uniform  to  indicate  that  these  pupils  are  properly  graded.  But 
the  wide  scattering  of  individual  scores  at  the  upper  and  lower 
ends  of  the  distribution  seems  to  indicate  failure  properly  to 
classify  pupils  so  that  they  may  do  most  effective  work.  Pupils 
making  extreme  scores  in  this  test  should  have  their  ratings 
verified  by  some  standardized  group  intelligence  test.  If  the 
results  are  similar  in  the  two  tests,  the  individual  pupils  at  the 


Standard  Attainments  93 

upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  distribution  should  be  further 
investigated  by  the  Terman  Revision  of  the  Binet  Intelligence 
Tests.  Individuals  might  then  be  placed  in  the  grades  so  as 
to  secure  relatively  homogeneous  grouping  and  the  highest 
possibility  for  each  pupil  to  progress  with  maximum  efficiency. 

Summary 

1.  Distribution  of  scores  in  tests  on  the  fundamentals  of 
arithmetic  show  a  wide  range  of  attainment  in  every  grade. 
This  range  increases  as  the  grades  advance. 

2.  After  three  months  of  special  drill,  results  in  a  similar  test 
show  marked  improvement.  However,  median  scores  average 
one  example  less  than  the  Courtis  general  medians  in  rate  and 
show  only  fair  accuracy. 

3.  Comparison  of  scores  attained  in  seven  schools  under 
similar  conditions  shows  the  three  schools  of  entirely  or  pre- 
dominatingly negro  pupilage  to  achieve  uniformly  lower  results. 

4.  Negro  pupils  in  the  Stanton  School  achieved  generally 
lower  median  scores  than  did  white  pupils. 

5.  In  tests  of  reasoning  ability  in  arithmetic,  white  pupils  of 
the  school  exceed  colored  pupils  in  median  scores  by  approxi- 
mately 25%  in  principle  and  37%  in  computation. 

6.  In  Monroe  Standardized  Silent  Reading  Tests  all  medians 
are  below  standard  scores,  especially  in  grades  four  and  five, 
though  white  pupils  approach  these  standards  more  closely 
than  do  negro  pupils. 

7.  Results  in  the  Trabue  Completion  Test  Language  Scale 
are  high  and  show  httle  racial  difference  in  achievement. 

8.  Spelling  scores  show  a  wide  range  of  variation,  especially 
in  the  lower  grades.  Scores  are  especially  low  in  grade  five  but 
slightly  exceed  the  Ayres  Standard  in  grade  eight.  In  grades 
five  and  six  the  median  scores  of  negro  pupils  are  lower  than 
those  of  white  pupils  though  they  slightly  exceed  the  white 
median  in  grade  seven. 

9.  The  results  of  an  unstandardized  intelligence  test  (Thorn- 
dike  Army  Air  Service  Test  for  Enlisted  Men)  show  extreme 
differences  in  every  grade  in  the  abilities  of  pupils. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  WORKING  AIMS  OF  A  UNIT  SCHOOL 

General  Aims 
The  general  aim  of  education  postulates  the  adjustment  of 
the  individual  to  those  elements  and  processes  of  his  environ- 
ment that  are  of  concern  in  modern  life.  Education  should 
bring  about  "such  a  control  of  themselves  and  of  the  world's 
resources  by  pupils  as  will  make  them  high-minded,  apprecia- 
tive, thoughtful  and  generally  efficient  participators  in  the 
world's  affairs."*  It  is  to  the  life  about  it  that  the  school  looks 
for  the  subject  matter  of  its  instruction,  and  a  "curriculum  will 
be  good  to  the  degree  in  which  it  contains  problems — mental, 
moral,  aesthetic  and  economic — that  are  socially  vital  and  yet 
within  the  appreciation  of  the  pupils."*  However,  while  there 
is  much  in  common,  modern  life  is  not  the  same  for  all,  par- 
ticularly if  considered  from  the  point  of  view  of  those  elements 
that  are  of  prime  concern  to  different  groups  and  individuals. 
Thus,  even  on  the  objective  or  content  side,  there  is  empha- 
sized the  individual  and  his  specific  needs.  Consequently  one 
of  the  most  important  functions  of  a  school  is  so  to  select  its 
subject  matter  and  activities  as  to  include  all  those  common  ele- 
ments that  are  essential  to  the  formation  of  a  broad  like-minded- 
ness  fundamental  to  sound  social  organization,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  provide  for  those  special  adjustments  made  necessary 
by  variant  immediate  environmental  conditions  as  well  as  the 
diverse  capacities  and  interests  of  particular  individuals. 
^  The  aim  of  education  requires  that  we  "develop,  organize 
and  train  the  powers  of  the  individual  that  he  may  make  efii- 
cient  and  proper  use  of  them."|  Here,  on  the  subjective  side, 
the  aim  seems  wholly  individual  except  in  so  far  as  the  develop- 
ment and  use  of  individual  powers  depend  upon  immediate 
environment.  In  reality  the  two  are  correlative.  An  activity 
is  educative  largely  as  the  medium  in  which  it  functions  is 
adjusted  to  the  powers  of  the  individual,  and  as  he  senses  a  real 
need  or  purpose  in  its  execution.  The  knowledge,  power  and 
habits  that  determine  a  well-ordered  daily  life  come  through 

*McMuny:  El.  School  Standards— P  3. 
JSee  P  13. 

94 


The  Working  Aims  of  a  Unit  School  95 

the  wise  purpose-choosing,  thoughtful  planning,  painstaking  ex- 
ecution and  final  judgment  of  results  which  are  typical  of  real 
life  situations. t  Such  efficient  and  proper  use  of  powers  con- 
stitutes character.  Its  development  requires  on  the  one  hand 
individual  stimulation  and  guidance  adjusted  to  the  instincts 
and  developing  powers  of  the  child,  and,  on  the  other,  a  close 
correlation  of  school  work  with  the  life  activities  of  the  imme- 
diate social  environment. 

Characteristics  of  School's  Community 

Communities,  like  persons,  assume  individuahty.  The  par- 
ticular school  to  which  this  study  is  limited  serves  a  community 
which,  like  all  others,  has  developed  distinguishing  character- 
istics. These  mark  it  off  from  the  larger  society  of  which  it  is 
a  part  and  form  a  body  of  environing  conditions  to  which  the 
school  must  make  proper  adjustment  if  its  work  is  to  co^j^orm 
to  the  aim  of  education.  The  more  prominent  of  these  coricB- 
tions  as  set  forth  in  preceding  chapters  may  be  grouped  under 
three  heads:  social,  economic  and  intellectual,  though  such 
grouping  is  by  no  means  mutually  exclusive. 

In  the  community  studied,  perhaps  the  most  important  dis- 
tinguishing feature  in  each  one  of  the  above  divisions  is  that  of 
race.  That  this  condition  is  not  the  result  of  inherent  racial 
differences  is  indicated  by  many  wholly  impartial  and  scientific 
investigations.  To  quote  an  authority  in  this  field,  "It  would 
be  erroneous  to  assume  that  there  are  no  differences  in  the 
mental  make-up  of  the  negro  race  and  of  other  races,  and  that 
their  activities  should  run  in  the  same  lines._  On  the  contrary, 
if  there  is  any  meaning  in  correlation  of  anatomical  structure 
and  physiological  function,  we  must  expect  that  differences 
exist.  There  is,  however,  no  evidence  whatever  that  would 
stigmatize  the  negro  as  of  weaker  build,  or  as  subject  to  inclina- 
tions and  powers  that  are  opposed  to  our  social  organization. 
An  unbiased  estimate  of  the  anthropological  evidence  so  far 
brought  forward  does  not  permit  us  to  countenance  the  belief 
in  a  racial  inferiority  which  would  unfit  an  individual  of  the 
negro  race  to  take  his  part  in  modern  civilization.  We  do  not 
know  of  any  demand  made  on  the  human  body  or  mind  in 

tSee  Kilpatrick,  Wm.  H.  The  Project  Method,  Teachers'  College  Record 
—September,  1918. 


96  School  Adjustment 

modern  life  that  anatomical  or  ethnological  evidence   would 
prove  to  be  beyond  the  powers  of  the  negro."*     What  differences 
do  exist  are  often  magnified  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  sig- 
nificance.    Specific  group  and  individual  differences  resulting 
entirely  from  environmental  circumstance  have  been  errone- 
ously associated  with  racial  peculiarities  as  if  their  connection 
were  essentially  that  of  cause  and  effect.     These  often  become 
rooted  so  deeply  in  social  tradition  and  prejudice  as  not  only 
to  accentuate  the  original  peculiarities,  but  also  effectually  to 
obstruct  a  disentanglement.     However,  in  a  democracy  com- 
/'mitted  unmistakably  to  'equality  of  opportunity,'  it  is  desir- 
\able  that  the  school  base  its  work  on  community  conditions  as 
/they  exist,  though  it  must  ever  guard  against  the  possibility 
'  of  setting  up  for  a  race  or  a  group  something  less  than  a  com- 
plete aim  of  education. 

Social  Conditions 

Analysis  of  the  social  conditions  surrounding  the  Stanton- 
Arthur  School  (pp.  18-36)  shows  a  relatively  unstable  popula- 
tion composed  of  whites  and  negroes;  the  whites  decreasing 
in  numbers  and  the  negroes  increasing  rapidly  by  immigration. 
This  negro  population  contains  a  large  proportion  of  females, 
a  large  proportion  of  young  people  and  relatively  few  children. 
Marital  conditions  are  unstable,  housing  is  unsatisfactory,  the 
lodger  evil  is  acute,  mothers  too  frequently  are  employed  out- 
side the  home  and  social  life  in  general  is  centered  elsewhere 
than  in  the  home.  These  conditions,  among  others,  indicate  a 
social  background  which  deserves  careful  consideration  by  the 
school.  From  the  point  of  view  of  securing  the  best  possible 
standard  conditions,  the  school  should  consciously  turn  its 
attention  toward  improving  the  home.  From  the  point  of  view 
of  adjusting  the  work  and  aims  of  the  school  to  the  capacities 
and  needs  of  the  individual,  there  is  reason  for  a  somewhat 
general  departure  from  the  relatively  uniform  requirements  of 
a  large  public  school  system. 

Economic  Conditions 

Economic  conditions  in  the  community  (pp.  30-32)  show  a 
range  from  abject  poverty  resulting  from  ill  health  and  incom- 
*  Boas,  F.,  The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,  pp.  271-2. 


The  Working  Aims  of  a  Unit  School  97 

petence  to  the  comfortable  prosperity  of  the  skilled  mechanic 
and  the  small  business  man.  However,  especially  among  the 
negroes,  there  is  very  general  and  precarious  dependence  upon 
the  daily  wage  from  unskilled  labor.  This  condition  often 
makes  it  necessary  for  all  members  of  the  family  to  engage  in 
gainful  occupations  and  causes  many  children  to  be  withdrawn 
from  school  on  their  arrival  at  legal  working  age  regardless  of 
their  preparation  for  satisfactory  employment.  This  condition 
should  serve  to  emphasize  to  the  school  the  importance  (1)  of 
adjusting  its  work  to  the  probable  length  of  schooling  of  each 
individual,  (2)  of  retaining  children  so  far  as  is  possible  until 
such  time  as  they  indicate  at  least  some  degree  of  interest  in 
and  adaptability  to  a  general  field  of  work,  (3)  of  being  pre- 
pared to  advise  pupils  as  to  particular  employments  and  -to 
supervise  their  placement,  and  (4)  of  continuing  supervisory 
relations  over  such  children  until  they  become  relatively  estab- 
lished in  their  work  and  give  promise  of  satisfactory  progress. 

Intellectual  Conditions 

The  degree  of  culture  and  general  intellectual  status  of  a 
community  has  large  effect  in  establishing  its  ideals.     These 
in  turn  determine  progress.     Intellectual  ideals  and  achieve- 
ment are  so  interwoven  into  the  social  and  economic  fabric 
that  it  would  be  difficult  to  segregate  them  if  this  were  desir- 
yshle.     Nevertheless,  due  to  whatever  cause  or  combination  of 
j  causes,  there  are  in  the  school's  community  indications  of  re- 
1  tarded   intellectual   development.     These  do  not  of  necessity 
I  point  to  ineradicable  inherent  stigmata  among  individuals  of 
the  group,  but  they  represent  a  condition  of  which  the  school 
ymust  be  cognizant  in  formulating  its  aims  and  planning  its 
work.     As  the  instability  of  the  population  is  reflected  in  ex- 
cessive pupil  turn-over  in  the  school,  so  also  is  the  general  back- 
wardness of  a  large  part  of  the  community  reflected  in  excessive 
non-attendance  at  school,  truancy,  over-age,  retardation  and 
lack  of  determined  application  to  the  work  of  the  school.     This 
statement  still  retains  much  of  its  force  after  placing  full  re- 
sponsibility upon  the  school  itself  for  its  failure  to  make  proper 
adjustments  of  its  aims  and  work  to  the  immediate  needs  of 
the  community.     In  relative  achievements  in  the  more  formal 
school  subjects  it  is  found  that,  while  negro  pupils  show  gener- 


98  School  Adjustment 

ally  somewhat  lower  median  scores  than  whites,  on  the  whole 
the  median  scores  of  all  pupils  combined  are  lower  than  stand- 
ards established  by  wide  investigation  (pp.  80-90).  This  con- 
dition, combined  with  the  fact  that  the  individual  range  of 
variation  in  achievement  is  generally  very  wide  (pp.  79-90), 
suggests  the  advisability  of  special  emphasis  on  these  funda- 
mental subjects  and  at  the  same  time  a  variation  in  content 
and  method  to  adjust  the  work  to  the  widely  differing  capaci- 
ties and  interests  of  pupils. 

Selection  of  Content 

Details  of  subject  matter  and  specific  methods  should  be 
selected  on  a  basis  of  their  efficiency  in  furthering  these  sub- 
ordinate aims  or  immediate  objectives,  the  accomphshment  of 
which  will  make  essential  contribution  to  the  realization  of  the 
broader  aim.  Indeed,  "Each  phase  of  the  educational  aim 
must  be  analyzed  into  specific  ends,  and  the  whole  range  of 
human  knowledge  and  experience  searched  through  for  the 
details  which  definitely  and  certainly  further  each  in  the  most 
many-sided  relationships  and  with  the  greatest  likelihood  of 
recurrence  in  every-day  life.  When  included  in  the  educational 
content  they  must  be  organized,  not  merely  with  a  view  to  the 
indirect  furtherance  of  these  ends  through  general  knowledge 
and  culture,  but  in  such  fashion  that,  whether  facts  or  activi- 
ties, they  will,  through  gradual  accumulation  and  reorganiza- 
tion, be  definitely  and  certainly  associated  with  all  others  that 
tend  to  the  specific  aim  upon  whose  furtherance  their  direct 
usefulness  depends."*  Human  life  consists  in  the  performance 
of  specific  activities  which  can  be  discovered  for  any  social 
group,  however  numerous  and  diverse  they  may  be.  These 
activities  will  show  the  abilities,  attitudes,  habits,  appreciations 
and  forms  of  knowledge  that  we  need  and  they  become  the 
definite  and  particularized  objectives  of  the  curriculum. f  Inci- 
dental or  undirected  developmental  experience  contributes  much 
but  leaves  training  imperfect.  It  is  necessary  to  supplement 
such  experience  with  the  conscious  directed  training  of  sys- 
tematized education.  The  curriculum  of  a  school  aims  at  the 
objectives  that  are  not  sufficiently  attained  as  a  result  of  the 

*  Yocum,  A.  Duncan — Culture,  Discipline  and  Democracy — p.  24. 
t  Bobbibt,  F.,  The  Curriculum,  p.  42  et  seq. 


The  Working  Aims  of  a  Unit  School  99 

general  undirected  experience.  The  curriculum  of  directed 
training  is  to  be  discovered  in  the  shortcomings  of  individuals 
after  undirected  training  has  done  its  work.  It  would  seem 
desirable,  therefore,  that  the  working  aims  of  the  Stanton- 
Arthur  School  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  include  all  those  spe- 
cific qualities  of  democratic  citizenship  that  are  fundamental 
to  proper  individual  and  social  habits,  attitudes  and  interests, 
and  to  lay  special  emphasis  on  those  qualities  essential  to  a 
well-rounded  development  but  likely  to  be  counteracted  by  the 
influences  of  an  unfa\orable  environment. 

Moral  Character 

Thus  in  a  community  with  the  social  conditions  described 
above,  the  work  of  the  school  should  be  permeated  throughout 
with  such  moral  attributes  as  regularity,  punctuality,  responsi- 
bility, neatness,  accuracy,  tenacity  of  purpose,  truthfulness, 
honesty  and  purity  of  thought  and  action.  To  attain  maximum 
effectiveness,  these  qualities  should  be  developed  in  such  a 
way  as  to  show  their  essential  connection  with  real  life  situa- 
tions. This  can  be  done  never  so  effectively  as  when  life  situa- 
tions themselves  are  brought  into  the  school  work.  Thus  in- 
directly and  only  gradually  will  the  influence  of  the  school  be 
felt  in  home  and  social  life.  In  addition,  more  direct  and  im- 
mediate influence  could  be  brought  to  bear  if  the  school  were 
made  the  social  clearing  house  for  the  neighborhood.  In  this 
way  with  common  understanding  and  united  purpose,  parents 
and  children  would  work  together  to  the  advantage  of  both 
in  the  creation  and  execution  of  a  constructive  home  and  com- 
munity program. 

Health  Habits 

In  similar  manner  the  school  should  emphasize  all  phases 
of  hygiene  and  physical  education.  Sudden  change  in  climatic 
conditions,  poor  housing,  irregular  working  hours,  unwise  recrea- 
tion and  general  disregard  for  the  laws  of  health,  have  been 
seen  to  cause  a  high  death  rate  and  much  illness,  with  attendant 
economic  and  social  evils.  It  is  only  as  the  school  inculcates 
in  all  its  pupils  proper  health  habits,  and  follows  their  execution 
into  the  home  and  the  street  that  definite  results  can  be  accom- 
plished. 


100  School  Adjustment 

Efficient  Home  Life 
Together  with  morality  and  health,  both  of  which  center 
largely  around  the  home,  it  has  been  seen  that  there  are  many 
other  elements  of  hoyjie  life  that  call  for  special  recognition 
on  the  part  of  this  school.  Improvidence,  unsanitary  housing, 
the  absence  of  mothers  at  work,  the  presence  of  lodgers,  un- 
regulated social  life  outside  the  home,  make  it  desirable  that 
the  school  should  aim  to  improve  home  conditions  not  only 
through  pupils,  but  also  through  direct  contact  with  the  home 
itself.  Instruction  in  practical  household  economy,  in  bodily 
cleanliness,  orderliness,  neatness,  wise  purchasing,  sane  decora- 
tion, cooking,  sewing,  sanitation,  child  hygiene,  all  bearing 
directly  upon  actual  home  conditions,  should  be  offered.  Such 
instruction,  it  would  seem,  should  constitute  an  important  part 
of  the  regular  school  work  and  might  very  properly  be  intro- 
duced well  down  in  the  grades.  By  means  of  its  specific  con- 
nection with  actual  home  conditions,  the  interest  of  parents 
would  be  aroused  to  the  point  of  encouraging  their  attendance 
at  evening  meetings  in  the  school  for  the  discussion  of  vital 
topics.  From  such  discussion  there  would  emerge  a  conscious 
desire  for  better  home  conditions  and  general  civic  improve- 
ment. With  the  formation  of  definite  community  projects  and 
their  execution  by  the  combined  efforts  of  pupils  and  parents, 
there  would  come  not  only  a  marked  improvement  in  social 
standards  but  also  a  keen  appreciation  of  the  function  of  a 
public  school  in  its  community.  In  this  way  the  "compulsory" 
feature  of  education  may  gradually  assume  less  importance, 
for  only  as  parents  and  pupils  alike  realize  the  essential  con- 
nection of  the  school  with  their  home  and  community  life, 
can  the  school  hope  to  foster  that  true  motivation  and  interest 
that  will  bring  about  in  each  individual  the  highest  approxi- 
mation to  complete  development. 

Vocational  Efficiency 
In  similar  manner,  as  has  already  been  seen,  it  is  important 
for  the  working  aim  of  the  school  in  this  particular  community 
to  emphasize  preparation  for  vocational  efficiency.  With  the 
hmited  time  at  its  disposal  and  the  lack  of  fundamental  prepa- 
ration on  the  part  of  its  pupils,  it  would  be  unwise  for  the  school 
to  attempt  specific  vocational  training  in   any  general  way. 


The  Worki7ig  Aims  of  a  Unit  School  101 

Ho\\'ever,  considering  the  extent  to  which  pupils  leave  school 
from  grades  5  and  6,  it  might  be  wise  to  anticipate  such  early 
withdrawal  to  the  extent  of  affording  opportunity  for  training 
in  some  elementary  specific  vocational  skill  upon  which  future 
development  may  be  based.  For  all  pupils  there  should  be 
such  adjustment  of  method  and  content  as  would  permit  a 
general  survey  of  the  more  important  occupations  of  the  com- 
munity— the  opportunities  afforded  and  the  demands  of  each. 
In  this  connection  there  should  be  developed  a  keen  apprecia- 
tion of  the  importance  of  vocational  ideals  and  a  recognition 
of  individual  responsibility  for  social  service  through  voca- 
tional efficiency. 

Minimum  Essentiat.s 

In  its  attempt  to  achieve  these  community  aims,  the  school 
must  in  no  way  lose  sight  of  its  'traditional'  function.  The 
common  core  of  knowledge,  habits  and  attitudes,  the  minimum 
essentials,  must  be  achieved  in  the  elementary  school.  This 
common  minimum  is  determined  by  the  larger  society  of  which 
the  individual  is  a  part  and  it  is  upon  this  foundation  that 
democracy  is  based.  "The  first  six  years  of  school  life  should 
give  the  'tools'  of  an  education,  correct  habits  in  the  u^e  of 
the  mother  tongue;  familiarity  with  the  simple  thrilling  story 
of  the  birth  and  growth  of  our  country,  with  emphasis  on  what 
the  citizen  owes  the  community  for  what  it  gives  him;  an  in- 
terpretation of  the  common  things  of  nature  in  the  environ- 
ment; an  elementary  survey  of  the  world  and  its  peoples,  from 
the  traveler's  viewpoint;  the  useful  things  in  home  economics 
and  in  manual  training,  the  one  for  the  girls  and  the  other  for 
the  boys;  sufficient  knowledge  to  conserve  health  and  to  protect 
life;  and  finally,  provision  against  the  ennui  of  leisure  hours, 
by  laying  the  foundations  of  taste  in  music,  in  art,  and  in  lit- 
erature. Learning  to  read,  to  write,  to  spell,  and  to  use  the 
processes  of  arithmetic  that  fall  within  the  simple  situations 
of  the  child's  experience,  must  remain,  now,  a?  of  old,  the  dis- 
tinctive work  of  this  period."*  However,  it  is  entirely  inade- 
quate to  select  subjects  as  wholes  with  a  view  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  minimum  essentials.     "The  determination  of 

*  Bunker,  F.  F. — Reorganization  of  the  Public  School  System.  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education  Bulletin,  1916,  No.  & 


102  School  Adjustment 

minimum  essentials  for  a  particular  school  subject  must  be 
preceded  by  the  determination  of  minimum  essentials  in  edu- 
cational aims,  regardless  of  the  branches  to  be  held  responsible 
for  each  essential.     The  course  of  study  as  a  whole  must  include : 

"1.  Both  general  usefulness  and  specifically  social  aims. 

"2.  All  forms  of  mental  training  or  control — varying  Im- 
pression, vocabulary,  associations,  fixed  associations  or  habits 
and  transfer. 

"3.  The  various  stages  in  retention — or  forms  of  material 
from  the  standpoint  of  retention — that  further  each  form  of 
control:  impressionistic  material  that  is  designated  to  be  for- 
gotten (impression  control),  optional  material  that  is  marked 
for  a  retention  that  varies  with  individuals  (vocabulary  and 
variation  control),  and  memorized  material  which  may  be  drilled 
upon  and  reviewed  (habit  control).  An  amount  of  each  of  these 
forms  of  material  adequate  to  each  of  the  educational  aims 
and  forms  of  control  is  a  minimum  essential  in  some  branch 
or  other."* 

Consequently  there  should  be  a  minute  analysis  of  subject 
matter,  a  determination  for  each  detail  of  its  general  or  specific 
usefulness,  of  the  forms  of  control  and  retention  essential  to 
such  usefulness,  and  the  definite  association  of  each  detail  with 
the  thing  that  certainly  suggests  the  value  it  is  included  to 
realize. 

Recent  developments  in  educational  practice  are  proving  that 
the  minimum  essentials  can  be  achieved  most  profitably  in  the 
first  six  years  of  school  life.  Thus  there  are  left  to  the  Stanton- 
Arthur  School  two  additional  years  in  which  to  make  special 
provision  for  meeting  specific  individual  needs.  This  it  is  nec- 
essary to  do,  but  there  are  a  large  number  of  pupils  who  never 
reach  this  stage  of  educational  advancement.  It  seems  advis- 
able that  adjustments  in  even  common  minimums  outlined 
above  be  made  for  these  individuals  recognizing  their  advanced 
stage  of  physiological  maturity,  as  well  as  the  approaching 
termination  of  the  school's  influence.  For  such  over-age,  mal- 
adjusted pupils  it  may  be  wise  to  sacrifice  certain  elements  of 
standard  courses  of  instruction  in  order  to  secure  sufl&ciently 
thorough  grounding  in  the  fundamentals  of  reading,  writing 

*  Yocum,  A.  Duncan — Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings,  U.  of  Penna.,  1917. 
pp.  173-4. 


The  Workiiig  Aims  of  a  Unit  School  103 

and  practical  elementary  arithmetic,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  develop  sound  physical,  social,  moral  and  vocational  habits 
and  attitudes,  based  on  intimate  knowledge  of  individual  pupil 
capacity,  ability  and  probable  future  development. 

Having  in  mind  then  the  demands  of  society  in  general,  the 
needs  of  the  particular  community  and  the  varying  capacities 
and  interests  of  its  pupils,  the  school  aims  so  to  adjust  its  ac- 
tivities to  particular  social  and  community  needs  as  to  promote 
in  each  individual,  through  directed  training,  the  fullest  possible 
socialized  self-realization. 


CHAPTER  VI 

ATTAINMENT  OF  AIMS  UNDER  STANDARD 
CONDITIONS 

Conditions  Accepted  as  Standard 
Certain  limiting  conditions  both  external  and  internal  to  the 
larger  system  of  which  this  school  is  a  unit  organization,  and 
certain  other  limitations  peculiar  to  this  school  must  be  met 
in  the  attempt  to  achieve  the  working  aim.  These  conditions 
have  been  detailed  in  previous  chapters.  The  most  general 
limitation  is  that  placed  upon  the  taxing  power  of  the  Board  of 
Education.  With  a  tax  rate  of  six  mills  (1919)  the  expense  of 
teaching  each  elementary  pupil  for  a  year  must  be  limited  to 
an  average  of  $37.05.*  The  effects  of  such  inadequate  funds 
are  reflected  in  plant,  equipment,  personnel,  organization  and 
in  all  departments  of  the  work  of  the  schools.  This  general 
limitation  affects  the  particular  school  in  question  by  affording 
in  one  building  only  the  barest  minimum  in  the  form  of  ade- 
quate classroom  facilities  with  no  proper  provision  for  assembly, 
play,  yard  space  or  special  activities  of  any  kind.  The  other 
building  is  of  the  box  type,  three  floors  of  six  rooms  each,  no 
halls,  cloak  rooms,  play  room,  auditorium,  no  space  or  facilities 
for  special  activities,  vicious  lighting  and  none  but  window 
ventilation. 

The  teaching  force  of  the  school  is  supplied  from  the  general 
eligible  list  of  the  entire  school  system  without  special  regard 
to  aptitude  for,  interest  in,  or  sympathy  for  the  peculiar  prob- 
lems connected  with  the  instruction  of  a  group  of  pupils  pre- 
dominantly negro.  The  school  has  been  fortunate  in  retaining 
a  large  number  of  teachers  who  have  grown  with  the  problem 
and  whose  social  spirit  prompts  them  to  continue  their  im- 
portant duties. 

The  organization  of  the  school  is  limited  by  the  provision 
in  the  rules  of  the  Board  of  Education  requiring  an  average 
of  forty  pupils  in  attendance  per  teacher  and  by  wholly  inade- 
quate provision  for  special  activities.  Seven  7th  and  8th  grade 
classes  have  been  compelled  to  go  to  a  neighboring  school  one 

*  Based  on  average  attendance.  Report  of  Board  of  Education,  Phila., 
1918,  p.  209. 

104 


Achievement  of  Imrnediate  Objectives  105 

session  each  week  for  instruction  in  cooking  and  manual  train- 
ing. This  practice  was  discontinued  in  September,  1919,  leav- 
ing the  school  entirely  without  provision  of  any  kind  for  instruc- 
tion in  manual  or  household  arts  except  sewing  for  girls.  This 
instruction  is  given  in  regular  classrooms,  often  with  boys  mark- 
ing time  in  the  same  room  for  lack  of  facilities  for,  or  an  in- 
structor in  appropriate  hand  work. 

Uniform  city  standard  courses  of  instruction,  together  with 
uniform  grading  and  regular  half-yearly  promotions  tend  to 
make  difficult  of  attainment  efficient  despatching,  flexible  grad- 
ing, the  longer  school  day,  and  the  desirable  adjustment  of 
courses  and  methods  to  specific  individual  and  community 
needs. 

Adjustments  to  Increase  Efficiency 

However,  under  the  conditions  briefly  described  above,  and 
with  the  aid  of  such  flexibility  as  does  exist  or  may  be  secured 
by  special  dispensation,  it  is  possible  to  make  many  adjust- 
ments in  the  organization  and  operations  of  the  school  with  a 
view  to  a  closer  approximation  to  the  achievement  of  the  edu- 
cational aim  in  each  individual.  Such  adjustments  must  be 
confined  largely  to  conditions  internal  to  the  school  itself. 
They  will  include: 

1.  The  selection  through  group  psychological  tests  of  pupils 
of  superior  and  inferior  ability,  and  the  more  detailed  indi- 
vidual study  of  these  cases  to  determine  proper  placement  in 
the  grades,  rates  of  progress  and  desirable  variations  in  con- 
tent or  method  of  instruction. 

2.  The  standardization  of  attainments  in  the  various  sub- 
jects of  instruction  and  the  establishment  of  working  aims 
within  reach  of  pupils  grouped  according  to  their  abilities. 

3.  The  determination  through  diagnostic  tests  of  particular 
individual  difficulties  and  of  special  method  to  overcome  them. 

4.  The  special  grouping  wherever  possible  of  those  pupils 
who  expect  shortly  to  discontinue  school  work  in  order  that 
provision  may  be  made  for  their  peculiar  needs. 

5.  Similar  special  grouping  in  vestibule  classes  of  those  new 
admissions,  mainly  from  the  South,  who,  although  of  advanced 
age,  show  marked  results  of  the  lack  of  educational  oppor- 
tunity. 


106  School  Adjustment 

6.  A  finer  grouping  of  pupils  in  regular  classes  wherever 
possible  (by  reason  of  more  than  one  class  of  the  same  numer- 
ical grade)  in  order  to  effect  flexibility  of  grading. 

7.  Variation  in  emphasis  and  selection  from  standard  courses 
of  the  specific  details  and  activities  that  would  most  certainly 
further  the  realization  of  particular  working  aims  and  would 
emphasize  at  every  possible  point  the  relation  of  school  work 
to  actual  community  and  home  conditions. 

8.  Adjustments  in  method  to  stress  the  dominantly  ethical 
phases  of  life  relationships  and  the  fundamental  moral  habits 
and  attitudes  Avhich  should  function  so  continuously  in  school 
work  as  to  become  unconscious  guardians  in  out-of -school  life. 

9.  The  establishment  of  a  system  of  school  credit  for  work 
done  in  the  home  to  emphasize  the  important  connection  between 
the  two,  and  at  the  same  time  to  foster  a  spirit  of  cooperation 
between  the  home  and  the  school  which  would  result  in  moral 
benefits  to  both. 

10.  The  systematic  use  of  the  McCoach  Playgrouna  to 
strengthen  the  training  in  hygiene  and  health  habits  as  well 
as  for  the  moral  advantages  to  be  derived  from  organized  play. 

The  conscious  cooperation  of  the  school  with  parents'  associa- 
tions, churches,  hospitals,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  Armstrong 
Association  and  other  social  and  civic  agencies  operating  in 
the  community  toward  the  combined  formulation  of  a  compre- 
hensive home,  school  and  community  program  would  do  much 
to  strengthen  the  influence  of  the  school  and  the  effectiveness 
of  its  work.  The  adjustments  above  indicated,  culminating 
in  a  wholesome,  vigorous  school  spirit,  based  upon  a  thorough 
appreciation  of  the  ideals  of  the  school  and  a  willingness  to 
cooperate  in  their  achievement,  would  result  in  a  strength  of 
character  and  fixedness  of  purpose  so  necessary  for  sound  indi- 
vidual progress,  especially  for  those  pupils  who  by  reason  of  their 
race  are  destined  to  be  harassed  by  many  obstacles. 

Opportunity  Class 
Many  of  these  adjustments  are  already  being  made  and  all 
of  them  can  be  effected  with  no  change  in  plant,  teaching  force 
or  expenditure,  save,  perhaps,  in  the  equipment  of  two  regular 
classrooms — one  for  an  additional  ungraded  class  and  one  for 
handwork  and  pre-vocational  activities.     Analysis  of  the  pro- 


Achievement  of  Immediate  Objectives  107 

cedure  in  the  attainment  of  each  of  these  suggested  adjust- 
ments will  be  presented  only  briefly  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
many  of  them  are  but  general  applications  of  principles  applied 
specifically  and  explained  in  detail  in  connection  with  the  or- 
ganization and  purposes  of  the  special  adjustment  class  referred 
to  in  a  former  chapter  (p.  71).  It  will  be  remembered  that  this 
class  could  accommodate  only  eighteen  of  the  most  extreme 
cases  of  maladjustment.  It  was  soon  found  that  restoration 
to  regular  classes  wsls  impracticable  and  that  adjustment  to 
the  regular  course  of  study  w^as  not  at  all  in  line  with  meeting 
individual  needs.  What  these  pupils  required  was  work  of  a 
very  practical  nature  for  immediate  use.  They  were  on  the 
brink  of  elimination  from  school  influence,  though  they  were 
entirely  unprepared  mentally  and  morally  for  any  degree  of 
success  in  the  work  of  the  world.  Accordingly,  emphasis  was 
placed  on  the  inculcation  of  habits  of  industry,  thrift,  perse- 
verance and  the  like.  Subject  matter  was  motivated  by  prac- 
tical application  and  use  in  daily  life.  Special  assignments 
with  manual  training,  cooking  and  sewing  classes  were  arranged. 
Pupils  were  encouraged  to  make  individual  studies  of  voca- 
tions, their  opportunities  and  the  requirements  for  success  in 
each.  Wide  reading  was  stimulated  and  standards  of  taste 
and  judgment  were  developed.  In  brief,  an  attempt  was  made 
in  these  few  cases  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  individual  pupils 
by  adjusting  the  course  of  study  to  those  needs.  This,  it  will 
be  noted,  is  in  direct  opposition  to  the  original  purpose  of  the 
class. 

In  order  to  become  conversant  with  each  individual  and  his 
needs,  a  series  of  examinations  and  tests  was  made.  The 
school  physician  reported  on  health  and  physical  condition  and 
the  school  nurse  followed  up  suggested  treatment.  The  Binet- 
Simon  Measuring  Scale  of  Intelligence  was  applied.  Courtis 
Standard  Tests  in  the  fundamentals  of  arithmetic  and  Monroe 
Standardized  Reasoning  Tests  were  administered.  Monfoe  Si- 
lent Reading  Tests,  the  Ayres  Spelling  Scale  and  Trabue  Lan- 
guage Scale  contributed  their  quota  of  information.  In  addi- 
tion there  was  individual  investigation  by  the  teacher  on  the 
fundamental  concepts  of  content  subjects.  Personal  interviews 
at  school  and  at  home  brought  to  light  social  and  environmental 
conditions  and  made  the  pupil  regard  the  teacher  as  a  real 
friend  and  adviser. 


108  School  Adjustment 

After  having  been  thus  'found'  physically,  mentally,  morally, 
socially,  environmentally  and  even  in  some  cases  aesthetically, 
the  status  of  each  pupil  was  recorded  on  a  graph.  This  served 
in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  to  epitomize  the  status  of  each 
child,  to  show  where  special  effort  was  required  and  to  act  as 
a  base  from  which  to  record  future  progress  toward  established 
goals.  With  such  detailed  information  as  a  guide,  both  teacher 
and  pupil  can  work  intelligently. 

So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  depart  from  the  standardized  con- 
ditions and  operations  of  a  large  school  organization,  some  such 
treatment  as  is  above  indicated  should  be  afforded  the  109 
pupils  of  incomplete  record  (Table  XXIX)  and  also  many  of 
the  over-age  and  retarded  pupils  now  retained  in  regular  classes 
(Table  XXVII). 

Ungraded  Classes 

It  is  desirable  that  an  attempt  be  made  to  meet  this  condition 
by  the  establishment  of  two  additional  ungraded  classes.  This 
could  be  effected  by  such  redistribution  of  the  school's  pupilage 
(Table  XI)  as  to  form  twenty-eight  instead  of  thirty  regular 
classes,  thus  increasing  slightly  the  enrollment  in  each  class 
but  at  the  same  time  freeing  two  additional  rooms  and  two 
teachers  for  special  work.  In  this  way  there  would  be  pro- 
vided in  the  school  four  special  classes  as  follows: 

1.  For  mental  defectives. 

2.  For  maladjustments  (not  to  be  restored  to  regular  classes). 

3.  For  exceptional  pupils  of  three  types : 

a.  Maladjusted  pupils  to  be  restored  to  regular  classes. 

b.  Cases  of  special  disability  in  a  particular  subject. 

c.  Cases  requiring  special  attention  for  rapid  advancement. 

4.  For  instruction  in  manual  arts. 

a.  Pre-vocational  work  for  those  about  to  leave  school. 

b.  Manual  arts  and  home  economics  for  all  pupils  of  grades 

5  and  6. 

The  first  of  these  classes  has  been  commented  on  in  chap- 
ter III  (p.  73).  There  is  need  for  greater  emphasis  on  hand 
work  and  less  futile  effort  toward  training  higher  powers  of 
intellect   that   are   hopelessly   lacking.*     The   second   type   of 

*  See  Buckingham — Editorial.  Journal  of  Ed'l  Research,  Feb.,  1920.  p. 
141. 


Achievement  of  Immediate  Objectives  109 

class  has  been  described   in  detail.     One  class  of  each   type 
already  exists  in  the  school. 

The  third  type  is  suggested  as  a  first  step  toward  introducing 
flexibility  into  the  grading  of  the  school.  The  teacher  would 
have  no  regularly  assigned  class.  It  is  desirable  that  she  be 
conversant  with  the  work  of  all  grades  and  be  in  possession 
of  a  broad,  sympathetic  spirit  of  helpful  cooperation  with 
teachers  and  pupils  alike.  By  means  of  individual  pupil  rosters 
she  would  receive  at  stated  periods  those  pupils  from  regular 
classes  who  are  in  need  of  special  assistance.  These  pupils 
would  be  dealt  with  as  individuals  or  in  small  homogeneous 
groups  and  would  be  restored  to  their  regular  classes  at  the 
expiration  of  a  brief  daily  period.  This  device  would  tend  to 
encourage  rapid  progress  in  some  individuals  and  to  prevent 
slow  progress  in  others. 

Industrial  Arts  and  Prevocational  Work 

The  fourth  type  suggested  above  would  have  two  distinct 
aims  in  view^:  first,  to  afford  for  pupils  about  to  go  to  work, 
some  prevocational  training  In  addition  to  the  regular  course 
of  instruction;  and  second,  to  provide  for  all  pupils  of  grades  5 
and  6  one  period  (one  and  one-half  hours)  each  week  in  which 
to  gain  an  appreciation  of  the  necessity  and  dignity  of  funda- 
mental manual  occupations  and  to  emphasize  concretely  the 
importance  of  wise  household  management  and  home-making. 
Periods  could  be  so  arranged  that  this  teacher  would  meet 
the  one  pre-vocational  class  every  afternoon  for  two  hours  and 
devote  nine  of  the  ten  weekly  morning  periods  to  the  nine 
classes  of  Grades  5  and  6.  These  classes  would  be  so  arranged 
that  the  boys  from  two  parallel  classes  would  attend  for  one 
period  and  the  girls  for  another.  Thus  a  double  advantage 
would  be  secured.  The  segregation  of  boys  and  girls  in  the 
manual  arts  classes  would  facilitate  differentiated  courses  and 
each  regular  class  teacher  would  have  two  periods  each  week, 
one  with  the  boys  of  her  class  and  one  with  the  girls,  in  which 
to  pursue  such  school  work  with  individual  pupils  as  their 
immediate  needs  demand.  The  tenth  morning  period  (one 
and  one-half  hours)  for  the  special  teacher  should  be  left  un- 
assigned. 

Reference  to  Tables  XXII  and  XXVIII  will  show  twenty-seven 
pupils  of  Grades  5  and  6  who  have  passed  fifteen  years  of  age. 


110  School  Adjustment 

Since  practically  all  of  these  pupils  signify  their  intention  of 
leaving  school  at  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  it  would  seem  ad- 
visable to  withdraw  them  from  regular  classes  for  the  after- 
noon sessions  to  form  a  group  whose  special  aim  would  be  prepa- 
ration for  vocation.  Individual  study  of  these  pupils  shows 
the  very  general  need  of  special  drill  upon  the  merest  funda- 
mentals and  the  motivation  of  such  drill  by  its  practical  appli- 
cation and  usefulness  in  concrete  projects.  Frequent  excur- 
sions to  industrial  plants  are  recommended  to  secure  the  close 
connection  of  school  work  with  industrial  and  vocational  pro- 
cesses. Through  such  study,  as  well  as  through  such  limited 
use  as  could  be  made  of  the  school  shop  and  kitchen,  pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  initiate  and  work  out  individual  pro- 
jects in  line  with  their  respective  choices  of  vocations.  The 
fact  that  this  work  is  to  be  of  practical  usefulness  in  the  near 
future,  together  with  the  opportunity  to  present  the  results 
of  individual  study  to  the  group,  should  serve  as  a  double  in- 
centive to  interest  and  effort  and  at  the  same  time  furnish 
opportunity  for  training  in  logical  organization.  It  is  possible 
that  this  type  of  work  will  so  hnk  up  the  school  with  practical 
every-day  activity  as  to  give  rise  to  an  interest  sufficiently 
strong  to  persuade  some  of  the  pupils  to  remain  in  school  after 
the  compulsory  period  has  passed.  Further  schooling,  of  course, 
should  be  encouraged,  but  it  should  be  so  planned  as  to  have 
special  bearing  in  the  immediate  problems  and  interests  of  the 
individual  concerned. 

To  the  greater  number  of  these  pre-vocational  pupils,  how- 
ever, it  will  be  important  to  give  the  broadest  possible  voca- 
tional perspective  in  the  brief  time  at  the  school's  disposal. 
The  teacher  should  attempt  to  instill  right  mental  attitudes 
toward  work.  She  should  act  as  vocational  counsellor,  and  so 
far  as  time  permits  should  carry  on  placement  and  follow-up 
work.  Wherever  possible,  individuals  who  have  left  school  and 
who  are  found  to  be  poorly  adjusted  to  their  chosen  line  of 
work  should  be  encouraged  to  return  to  school  for  further 
directed  study  and  subsequently  a  new  start. 

The  pre-vocational  teacher  should  spend  one  or  two  sessions 
each  week  in  learning  at  first  hand  the  vocational  opportuni- 
ties in  the  community  and  in  discovering  the  adaptability  of 
her  pupils   to   them.     She   should   occasionally  visit  with   an 


Achievement  of  Immediate  Objectives  111 

individual  pupil  or  a  small  group  both  the  home  and  the  pro- 
spective industry  in  order  that  when  the  pupil  leaves  school 
the  teacher  may  be  satisfied  that  under  the  existing  mental, 
physical  and  social  conditions,  the  pupil  is  making  the  most 
advantageous  choice  of  vocation. 

Flexible  Grading 

Throughout  the  school  the  wide  range  of  attainment  within 
any  one  grade  in  both  formal  school  subjects  and  intelligence 
tests  (chapter  IV)  may  be  taken  as  indicating  a  general  need  for 
a  finer  grouping  of  pupils  and  for  the  provision  of  a  flexibility 
that  will  permit  individuals  and  small  homogeneous  groups  of 
pupils  to  progress  at  rates  suited  to  their  capacities.  Even 
in  the  earliest  grades,  in  which  none  of  the  standard  tests  can  be 
applied  successfully,  it  is  evident  from  the  daily  experience  of 
teachers  that  many  pupils  are  retained  in  classes  long  after  it 
has  become  apparent  either  that  they  can  no  longer  pursue  the 
regular  class  work  with  profit,  or  that  they  could  successfully 
pursue  more  advanced  work,  or  work  of  a  different  character,. 
if  the  opportunity  were  offered. 

In  the  attempt  to  meet  this  condition  the  principles  of  effi 
ciency  suggest  some  such  modification  of  the  regular  school 
procedure  as  are  embodied  in  the  following  specific  recom- 
mendations. In  the  first  place,  wherever  there  are  two  or 
more  classes  of  the  same  grade,  grouping  should  be  based  on 
careful  study  of  the  achievements  and  capacities  of  individual 
pupils  as  indicated  by  relative  degree  of  attainment,  general 
development  and  the  results  of  scientific  intelligence  tests. 
Having  thus  secured  a  greater  degree  of  homogeneity,  each 
group  should  be  encouraged  to  progress  at  the  rate  best  suited 
to  its  past  achievements  and  present  powers  of  development. 
Thus  by  the  end  of  a  term  one  group  will  have  advanced  fur- 
ther than  the  others  and  may  be  well  on  in  the  work  of  the  suc- 
ceeding grade,  or  may  have  accomplished  more  extensive  and 
richer  application  of  the  work  in  hand.  With  the  poorest 
grade  groups  it  may  be  necessary  to  proceed  so  slowly  as  not 
to  complete  the  work  of  the  grade  in  the  time  set  by  the  stand- 
ard course.  However,  if  the  work  covered  has  been  done  thor- 
oughly the  pupils  will  be  better  prepared  for  future  advance- 
ment along  lines  of  normal  development.     It  is  desirable  there- 


112  School  Adjustment 

fore  that  standard  rates  of  progress  be  so  modified  as  to  con- 
form to  the  varying  capacities  of  these  homogeneous  groups 
of  pupils.  After  careful  study,  these  rates  should  be  definitely 
set  and  taken  into  account  in  determining  both  the  content 
and  method  of  the  work  to  be  done. 

Minimum  Courses 

Furthermore,  within  each  of  the  above-mentioned  groups 
whose  rates  of  progress  in  covering  the  same  course  will  vary, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  provide  still  further  differentiation  in 
the  way  of  maximum  and  minimum  courses.  It  will  not  be 
possible  under  the  above  scheme  so  to  classify  pupils  as  to  have 
all  do  the  same  work  in  the  same  time  with  equal  success. 
Within  each  group,  pupils  will  fall  into  smaller  sub-groups  vary- 
ing in  composition  with  the  different  subjects  of  instruction. 
It  will  be  advisable,  therefore,  definitely  to  establish  certain 
minimum  requirements  in  each  subject  which  all  pupils  must 
meet,  and  to  permit  pupils  to  advance  beyond  these  minima 
to  the  extent  that  their  abilities  and  the  time  allotment  make 
possible.  The  use  of  diagnostic  tests  in  this  connection  will 
afford  valuable  information  as  to  special  method  suited  to 
these  small  groups  as  well  as  to  the  specific  details  of  content 
requiring  special  drill.  While  the  basic  minimum  requirements 
must  be  achieved  by  all  pupils,  there  may  well  be  established 
differentiated  supplementary  minima  adjusted  to  the  varying 
capacities  of  the  different  ability-groups. 

Specific  Working  Aims  for  Groups  and  Individuals 

The  determination  of  such  planes  of  minimum  requirement 
leads  us  to  a  further  recommendation:  that  for  each  grade 
and  for  each  group  of  pupils  within  the  grade  there  should  be 
set  up  definite  concrete  standards  of  achievement.  One  of  the 
most  important  consequences  of  the  study  of  the  results  at- 
tained in  standard  tests  (Chapter  IV)  is  the  evident  wisdom  of 
the  establishment  of  definite  goals,  of  specific  working  aims 
in  each  subject  for  each  grade  and  for  groups  of  individuals 
within  each  grade.  An  attempt  to  do  this  with  the  results  of 
the  Courtis  Standard  Tests  in  Arithmetic  is  reported  by  the 
author  in  another  connection.*     Similar  attempts  to  establish 

*  Mathematics  Teacher,  Apr.,  1919 — Courtis  Tests  in  Arithmetic. 


Achievement  of  Immediate  Objectives  113 

detailed  working  aims  in  each  subject  are  meeting  with  the 
success  due  to  a  scheme  for  encouraging  in  children  a  spirit  of 
self-rivalry  and  the  ambition  to  succeed  in  a  definite  piece  of 
work  for  its  own  sake. 

The  above  plan  is  of  general  application  to  all  grades  and 
may  be  so  administered  as  to  encourage  such  adjustment  of 
content  and  method  to  individual  pupil  capacity  and  need 
as  to  develop  a  healthy  attitude  of  successful  achievement. 
Besides  eliminating  much  of  the  waste  incident  to  large  group 
instruction,  there  would  result  a  live  interest  and  an  individual 
self-determination  of  large  moral  as  well  as  intellectual  worth. 
The  evil  effects  of  the  adverse  physical,  social  and  moral  con- 
ditions previouslj'^  presented  may  thus  be  turned  to  good  account 
if  out  of  them  and  the  habit  of  successful  achievement  devel- 
oped by  the  school,  there  will  emerge  an  individual  determina- 
tion to  meet  present  difficulty  with  conscious  striving  toward 
a  clearly  visioned  goal. 

Many  of  the  efficiency  principles  outlined  in  the  introductory 
chapters  are  conserved  in  the  operation  of  the  plan  here  sug- 
gested. Clear  cut,  definite  working  aims  are  provided  for  each 
group  and  individual.  Standard  attainments  are  definitely  set 
up  and  understood  alike  by  teacher  and  pupil.  Time  sched- 
ules, despatching  and  method  are  carefully  adjusted  to  social 
and  individual  conditions,  to  varying  rates  of  progress  and  to 
diverse  capacities.  The  working  aim  of  the  school  emphasizes 
individual  self-realization.  The  successful  operation  of  the 
efficiency  principles  indicated  here  will  do  much  toward  effect- 
ing that  fine  adjustment  of  content  and  method  to  peculiar 
individual  needs  which  is  demanded  by  the  aim. 

Viewing  the  school  as  a  whole  in  the  light  of  its  social  envir- 
onment it  is  seen  that  there  is  urgent  need  for  such  individuali- 
zation as  is  represented  in  the  best  modern  elementary  school 
practice.  The  approach  toward  homogeneous  grouping  com- 
bined with  the  proper  connection  of  school  work  with  practical 
and  present  life  problems,  will  awaken  the  motive  force  of 
active  interest.  While  this  is  desirable  for  all  educational  work, 
it  is  of  paramount  importance  in  the  situation  presented  here. 
If  there  is  any  truth  in  the  statement,  "The  two  greatest  ob- 
stacles to  be  overcome  by  the  (Negro)  race  are  improvidence 


114  School  Adjustment 

and  immorality,"*  then  it  is  important  for  a  school  serving 
so  large  a  negro  population  to  face  these  conditions  squarely. 
If  the  fundamental  knowledge,  habits  and  attitudes  included 
in  the  aim  of  the  school  are  to  function  effectively  in  society, 
pupils  must  'Uve'  in  school,  and  the  basic  habits,  attitudes 
and  activities  of  the  school  must  be  identical  with  those  of  the 
worthy  life  in  order  to  insure  transfer  and  effective  use  in  real 
life  situations.  To  this  end  there  should  be  a  gradual  elim- 
ination of  didactic  set-task  teaching,  and  the  development  in 
pupils  of  initiative,  proper  organization  of  materials,  responsi- 
bility for  results  and  their  applications.  There  should  be  de- 
veloped an  effective  method  of  attack  on  new  problems,  a  clear 
conception  of  specific  aims,  a  persistent  linking  of  intellectual 
and  manual  activities,  a  conscious  testing  of  these  plans  in 
practical  experience  with  constant  opportunity  and  persistent 
encouragement  to  use  results  in  present  school  and  home  life. 

Selection  and  Emphasis  to  Meet  Needs 

To  accomplish  these  ends  it  may  be  necessary  to  minimize 
stress  upon  certain  features  of  standard  courses  of  study  in 
order  to  allow  ample  time  for  thorough  training  in  the  funda- 
mental minimum  essentials  and  their  practical  applications  to 
life.  Such  changes  in  emphasis  will  vary  with  the  different 
capacity-groups  provided  for  above  and  may  not  remain  con- 
stant for  any  one  group  for  an  entire  term.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary in  some  groups  for  a  time  to  minimize  parts  of  history, 
geography  and  literature  in  order  to  insure  proper  mastery 
of  fundamental  arithmetic,  English,  health  habits,  vocational 
attitudes  and  interests. 

It  may  be  necessary  for  a  time  to  emphasize  in  literature, 
history,  hygiene,  physical  training  and  civics  certain  features 
that  will  stress  the  development  of  particular  moral  qualities, 
as  punctuality,  responsibility,  thrift,  cleanliness  or  any  of  the 
specific  qualities  that  make  for  good  citizenship.  It  may  be 
advisable  to  eUminate  entirely  for  a  certain  6th  grade  group 
the  study  of  the  European  background  of  American  history  in 
order  to  make  definite  and  certain  the  development  of  proper 
attitudes  towards  hygiene,  vocation  and  home-making.     If  it 

*  Stone — Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problems — p.  205.  See  also  S.  G. 
Noble  "Forty  Years  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Mississippi."     p.  126. 


Achievement  of  Immediate  Objectives  115 

is  probable  that  such  a  group  will  not  continue  further  in  school, 
an  intensive  course  in  American  history  and  citizenship  is 
essential. 

It  may  be  advisable  to  modify,  extend  and  amplify  the  stand- 
ard courses  in  civics  and  history  with  a  view  to  insuring  the 
effective  functioning  in  present  life  of  the  ideals  of  democratic 
citizenship. 

It  may  be  desirable  to  emphasize  certain  phases  of  English 
to  provide  thorough  training  in  the  mechanics,  in  simple  com- 
position, or  in  thought-getting,  and  to  ally  the  latter  not  only 
with  appreciation  but  also  with  methods  of  effective  study  in 
other  subjects. 

In  geography  it  would  seem  desirable  that  all  pupils  have  the 
advantage  in  the  first  six  grades  of  an  elementary  study  of  all 
the  continents  in  order  to  provide  at  least  a  simple  foundation 
for  a  world  view  to  those  who  will  leave  school  at  the  end  of 
this  period.  In  addition  to  this,  the  further  advantage  would 
be  secured  of  devoting  grades  7  and  8  to  a  more  intensive  study 
involving  the  relations  of  physical,  commercial  and  political 
geography.* 

In  general,  conditions  indicate  the  necessity  for  a  minimum 
course  that  will  permit  concentration  upon  the  essential  funda- 
mentals and  their  concrete  application  to  simple  life  situations. 
At  the  same  time  the  school  must  offer  opportunity  for  work 
in  advance  of  these  prescribed  minima  for  pupils  who  can  pur- 
sue it  with  profit. 

Grades  7  and  8 

Many  of  the  above  suggestions  are  applicable  with  even 
greater  force  to  grades  7  and  8,  wherein  variations  and  indi- 
vidual differences  become  more  pronounced.  The  underlying 
philosophy  of  the  Junior  High  School  movement  rests  in  the 
attempt  to  meet  the  needs,  capacities  and  interests  of  pupils 
of  the  early  adolescent  period  and  to  provide  proper  differ- 
entiation of  activities  to  foster  the  most  effective  development 
of  individual  powers.  In  view  of  the  facts  (1)  that  many 
pupils  of  grades  5  and  6  are  further  advanced  in  chronological 
and  physiological  age  than  the  normal  7th  and  8th  grade  pupil, 
and  (2)  that  many  of  these  pupils  will  leave  school  before  or 

*  See  Teachers'  Manual  of  Geography,  Grades  7-8.  Massachusetts  Course 
of  Study,  1918,  No.  6,  Page  6. 


116  School  Adjustment 

soon  after  reaching  the  7th  grade,  many  of  the  principles  under- 
lying the  Junior  High  School  development  have  been  applied 
to  pupils  of  these  lower  grades.  This  is  in  line  with  the  pro- 
posed classification  of  pupils  on  the  basis  of  physiological  and 
mental  maturity,*  and  with  the  practice  in  some  school  sys- 
tems of  advancing  mature  pupils  to  the  Junior  High  School 
regardless  of  their  successful  completion  of  the  work  of  grades 
5  and  6.t 

In  grades  7  and  8  of  the  Stanton  School,  there  are  seven 
classes  comprising  some  three  hundred  pupils.  Many  of  them 
are  much  over-age  (Table  XXII)  and  some  have  reached  the 
level  of  their  mental  development. J  As  has  been  indicated, 
a  number  of  white  pupils  are  newly  admitted  into  the  school 
in  grade  7,  and  the  excessive  leaving  of  colored  pupils  early  in 
the  term  causes  pupil  composition  to  show  a  higher  percentage 
of  whites  in  the  upper  grades.  Great  variation  is  exhibited 
in  size,  age,  maturity  and  interests.  Some  attempt  to  meet 
the  varying  needs  of  these  pupils  has  been  made  in  providing 
manual  training  for  boys  and  home  economics  for  girls,  and  in 
departmentalizing  regular  instruction.  However,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  manual  arts,  the  courses  remain  uniform.  Under 
the  present  limitations  of  school  plant  and  equipment  it  has 
seemed  inadvisable  and  impractical  to  attempt  any  such  ex- 
tensive variation  in  courses  of  instruction  as  is  necessary  to 
encourage  the  discovery  and  development  of  special  individual 
abilities  and  capacities.  The  desirable  reorganization  of  courses 
to  provide  constants  in  mathematics,  English,  science,  history, 
physical  education,  and  variables  such  as  foreign  languages, 
commercial  subjects,  pre- vocational  courses,  manual  training, 
home  economics  would  require  increased  expenditure  for  teach- 
ers, plant  and  equipment. 

Modifications  in  Standard  Courses 

However,  some  general  modifications  are  practicable.     For 

example,  in  7th  grade  arithmetic,  the  teaching  of  percentage 

and  business  forms  may  be  vitahzed  by  contact  with  immediate 

social  situations.     This  is  primarily  a  matter  of  method  and 

relative  emphasis.     Elementary  bookkeeping,  household  budget- 

*  Douglass,  A.  A.     Jr.  High  School,  p.  50. 

t  Solvay,  N.  Y.,  School  Report,  1914-15,  p.  22. 

t  Thorndike  Tests,  p.  60. 


Achievement  of  Immediate  Objectives  117 

making,  problems  of  thrift,  insurance,  taxation  should  receive 
due  consideration.  In  grade  8,  the  present  courses  in  algebra 
and  mensuration  should  be  merged  into  one  general  course  in 
elementary  mathematics  comprising  the  fundamental  concepts 
of  arithmetic,  algebra  and  geometry.*  The  course  of  study 
in  geography  should  be  so  reorganized  as  not  only  to  present 
clear  concepts  of  man's  relation  to  his  environment  but  to 
afford  instruction  in  elementary  general  sciencef  and  to  bring 
the  pupil  into  actual  contact  with  his  physical  and  social  en- 
vironment. History  should  be  made  to  bear  constantly  on 
present  social  problems,  particularly  those  of  vital  importance 
to  the  immediate  community.  This  will  be  especially  true  of 
the  work  in  civics  and  hygiene.  It  is  the  actual  doing  of  the 
things  suggested  by  such  study,  the  actual  working  out  of  worth- 
while projects,  that  insures  the  formation  of  desirable  habits 
and  ideals.  So  also  in  English  there  should  be  developed  an 
increasingly  large  number  of  opportunities  for  oral  and  written 
expression  with  a  social  purpose.  To  this  end,  the  assembly 
period,  the  debate,  the  school  paper,  the  printing  press,  the 
letter  with  a  real  purpose,  should  be  used  to  fullest  possible 
advantage.  Special  effort  should  be  made  to  insure  proper 
reading  habits  both  as  to  the  technique  of  silent  reading  and 
thought-getting  and  also  to  selection  and  taste  in  literature. 
Such  adjustments  as  these  will  do  much  to  vitalize  the  work 
of  these  grades  without  entailing  changes  in  organization,  plant 
and  equipment  such  as  would  be  impossible  under  the  present 
conditions. 

Pre-vocational  Training 
Throughout  all  the  work  and  for  all  pupils  emphasis  should 
be  placed  on  pre-vocational  training.  "Vocational  service — 
both  guidance  and  training  are  here  included — is  an  instru- 
ment for  talent-saving,  and  for  interpreting  school  life  in  terms 
of  career  building.  In  its  larger  relationships,  however,  voca- 
tional service  is  only  one  phase  of  the  social  organization^  of 
school  and  vocation.  It  introduces  into  education  the  motive 
of  the  life  career  and  the  idea  of  fitness  of  the  individual,  apart 
from  class  or  group;  it  introduces  into  employment  the  idea 

*  Minnick,  J.  H.,  Junior  High  School  Mathematics,  Current  Education, 
March,  1918,  p.  67. 

t  Gannan,  J.,  Current  Education,  February,  1920.  Science  in  the  Junior 
High  School. 


118  School  Adjustment 

of  fitness  of  the  task,  and  appraises  the  occupations  in  terms 
of  career  values  as  well  as  social  worth."* 

"In  Supt.  Spaulding's  -view,  vocational  guidance  should  for- 
mulate for  itself  the  problem  of  the  moral  effect  of  the  school 
on  the  child;  it  must  see  that  the  individual  learns  to  appreci- 
ate his  own  capacities  and  possibihties;  that  he  informs  himself 
concerning  the  opportunities  for  worthy  service  that  the  world 
offers;  that  he  prepares  himself  as  adequately  as  time  and 
conditions  permit  to  apply  his  powers  to  the  rendering  of  the 
highest  service  of  which  he  is,  or  may  become  capable,  and  that 
he  learns  to  concentrate  his  thought,  his  energy  and  ambition, 
to  this  end  of  large  and  worthy  service  "f 

This  ideal  of  worthy  social  service  should  permeate  the  entire 
work  of  the  school.  Concrete  courses  of  instruction  in  the  use 
of  tools  and  the  specific  industrial  processes  cannot  be  offered 
under  the  existing  conditions  and  their  practical  usefulness  in 
these  grades  is  doubtful.  But  much  can  be  accomplished  by 
closely  relating  all  school  activity  to  immediate  environmental 
conditions  in  industry  and  out.  In  addition,  it  may  be  desir- 
able definitely  to  plan  certain  work  in  connection  with  civics, 
geography,  hygiene  or  some  other  subject  with  the  aim  of 
considering  the  requirements,  opportunities  and  possibilities  for 
service  in  given  occupations.  In  this  connection,  visits  to  in- 
dustrial plants,  and  illustrated  talks  on  industrial  processes 
will  arouse  sufficient  interest  to  motivate  individual  pupil  pro- 
jects which  may  be  worked  out  with  profit. 

The  following  statement  from  Booker  Washington  was  made 
with  reference  to  his  own  people  though  the  application  of  the 
principle  involved  is  general:  "Our  greatest  danger  is  that 
we  may  overlook  the  fact  that  the  masses  of  us  are  to  live  by 
the  productions  of  our  hands,  and  fail  to  keep  in  mind  that  we 
shall  prosper  in  proportion  as  we  learn  to  dignify  and  glorify 
common  labor  and  put  brains  and  skill  into  the  common  occu- 
pations of  life."+  It  is  in  the  elementary  school  period  that 
such  ideals  should  be  implanted  and  this  can  be  accomplished 
with  greatest  effect  through  actual  contact  with  typical  occu- 
pations and  industrial  processes.     An  additional  gain  secured 

*  Bloomfield,  M.,  "The  School  and  the  Start  in  Life. "     Page  130. 

t  Ryan,  W.  C.  Jr.,  "Vocational  Guidance  and  the  PubHc  Schools."     Page 

i  Washington,  B.  T.,  Up  From  Slavery,  p.  220. 


Achievement  of  Immediate  Objectives  119 

by  such   'practical'   activity  is   the  stimulation   it  affords  to 
purposeful  work  in  related  academic  subjects. 

Individual  Pupil  Rosters 

The  extent  to  which  individualization  of  instruction  can  be 
made  effective  in  these  grades  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
energy  and  social  viewpoint  of  the  teacher  and  her  abihty  to 
gather  significant  data  on  the  individual  status,  needs  and 
interests  of  each  pupil  and  to  adjust  his  work  accordingly. 
This  will  require  a  close  sympathetic  understanding  of  his  life 
both  in  and  out  of  school  as  well  as  scientific  testing  and  diag- 
nosis. The  individual  treatment  of  these  cases  may  be  aided 
by  modification  in  the  organization  of  the  school  to  provide 
for  promotion  by  subject  and  for  individual  pupil  rosters  in 
cases  of  greatest  variation.  The  departmental  organization  of 
grades  7  and  8  lends  itself  to  such  adjustments  and  makes  less 
necessary  the  organization  of  special  ungraded  classes.  Indi- 
vidual pupils  can  take  certain  subjects  with  the  grade  below 
or  the  grade  above  where  this  is  desirable.  Further,  the  teacher- 
specialization  incident  to  departmental  organization  encourages 
the  development  of  a  scientific  attitude  toward  the  subject, 
and  the  desire  and  ability  so  to  present  it  as  to  arouse  the  in- 
terest and  meet  the  needs  of  individual  pupils. 

Health 

In  view  of  the  extent  of  absence  in  the  school  and  of  the 
prevalent  condition  of  ill  health  due  to  carelessness  or  ignor- 
ance of  the  laws  of  hygiene  and  healthy  living,  and  because 
of  the  poorly  lighted  and  ventilated  classrooms  of  the  Stanton 
building,  it  is  important  that  programs  make  ample  provision 
not  only  for  recreation  and  health  instruction  but  also  for  the 
inculcation  of  proper  health  habits.  There  is  a  lack  of  pro- 
vision for  recreation  and  play  in  the  present  school  building  and 
grounds,  but  this  difficulty  may  be  overcome  in  some  measure 
through  the  regular  use  of  facihties  provided  elsewhere  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  school.  The  McCoach  playground, 
one-half  block  distant  from  the  Stanton  building,  offers  excel- 
lent opportunity  for  physical  training,  outdoor  games,  and  the 
achievement  of  age-aims  set  up  by  the  course  of  study  in 
physical  training.     It  is  unfortunate  that  this  playground  does 


120  School  Adjustment 

not  afford  shelter  so  that  it  might  be  used  in  inclement  weather. 
However,  it  should  be  possible  to  arrange  with  the  neighboring 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  for  the  use  of  its  gymnasium  during  the  morning 
hours. 

Thoroughness  and  Success 
Such  modifications  as  have  been  indicated  above  by  way  of 
adjusting  school  activities  to  varying  capacities,  interests,  and 
rates  of  progress  will  have  a  wholesome  effect  upon  the  general 
morale  and  spirit  of  the  school.  This  result  will  be  height- 
ened by  conscious  effort  to  establish  definite  connection  of  school 
work  with  the  immediate  environment  in  home  and  community. 
Preparation  for  future  usefulness  will  be  measured  in  terms  of 
present  usefulness.  Every  course  of  instruction  will  have  as 
its  immediate  aim  the  doing  of  some  concrete  thing  whose  re- 
lation to  present  social  life  will  be  clearly  discerned.  Thus 
drill  work  on  fundamental  knowledge  and  habits  will  be  suffi- 
ciently stressed,  properly  motivated  and  made  to  serve  definite 
ends  clearly  understood  by  every  pupil.  Such  a  procedure 
will  have  important  moral  as  well  as  intellectual  results.  For 
a  people  often  characterized  as  "shiftless"  it  is  of  prime  im- 
portance to  fix  habits  of  thoroughness  in  tasks  attempted  and 
to  test  their  effectiveness  by  practical  use. 

Community  Contacts 
This  development  of  practical  morality,  together  with  the 
interest  resulting  from  work  directed  toward  a  constructive 
purpose  within  the  powers  of  the  individual,  will  have  important 
effect  in  improving  regularity  and  punctuaUty  of  attendance. 
It  is  necessary,  however,  to  meet  all  laxity  in  these  matters 
with  prompt,  decisive  and  constructive  measures.  To  this  end 
it  is  advisable  that  close  contact  with  the  home  be  established. 
Parents'  meetings  succeed  very  well  in  securing  this  contact^ 
but  too  often  the  influence  of  such  meetings  is  limited  to  those 
parents  who  are  already  willing  and  anxious  to  cooperate  with 
the  school.  For  parents  whose  interest  is  small,  or  in  some 
cases  even  negative,  it  is  important  that  the  sympathetic  influ- 
ence of  the  school  be  carried  into  the  home.  To  depend  for 
such  influence  upon  the  hurried  visits  of  an  overworked  attend- 
ance officer  whose  sole  interest  is  in  attendance  and  who  all 
too  frequently  threatens  prosecution,  is  often  to  aggravate  th& 


Achievement  of  Immediate  Objectives  121 

difficulty.  What  is  needed  in  these  cases  is  the  friendly  visit 
of  an  agent  of  the  school  who  possesses  a  broad  social  view- 
point and  who  will  outline  the  aims  of  the  school  and  the  im- 
portance of  the  full  cooperation  of  the  home.  Through  the 
cooperation  of  the  Armstrong  Association  of  Philadelphia,  this 
school  has  had  the  part-time  services  of  a  trained  social  worker. 
The  success  of  the  limited  work  of  this  home-and-school  visitor 
points  to  the  advisability  of  its  extension,  though  this  would 
involve  additional  expense  and  for  this  reason  the  recommen- 
dation for  the  employment  of  a  visiting  teacher  is  withheld 
for  the  present.  If  the  important  work  of  insuring  the  transfer 
of  school  ideals  to  the  home  is  to  be  accompHshed  with  any 
large  degree  of  success,  it  must  be  brought  about  by  the  teacher 
herself  after  school  hours  through  the  self-sacrificing  expendi- 
ture of  time  and  energy. 

Community  Co  operation 

The  combined  efforts  of  the  school  physician,  nurse,  attend- 
ance officer,  home-and-school  visitor,  together  with  the  sym- 
pathetic interest  of  teachers  and  the  cooperation  of  the  Parents' 
Association,  Board  of  Health,  Department  of  Public  Welfare, 
Bureau  of  Recreation,  Philadelphia  Housing  Association,  Arm- 
strong Association,  White-WiUiams  Foundation  for  Girls,  Com- 
munity Service,  Community  Churches,  Y,  M.  C.  A.  and  other 
local  social,  civic  and  charitable  organizations  will  make  pos- 
sible the  development  of  helpful  neighborliness  and  common 
purpose.  The  fact  of  the  initiation  of  such  a  comprehensive 
and  constructive  community  program  by  the  school  will  tend 
to  center  the  life  of  the  community  in  that  institution.  Thus 
will  the  influence  of  the  school  be  strengthened  with  both  pupils 
and  parents  as  well  as  with  the  neighborhood  at  large.  Such 
unity  of  purpose  and  cooperation  of  all  the  forces  in  the  com- 
munity toward  a  common  end  cannot  fail  to  foster  further  ad- 
justments of  the  school  to  immediate  community  needs. 

Summary 

On  a  basis  then  of  the  limiting  conditions  accepted  as  stand- 
ard, the  working  aims  of  the  school  are  set  as  high  and  as  wide 
as  possible  and  are  achieved  through  the  proper  adjustment  of 
equipment,   personnel,  courses  of  study,   programs,  despatch- 


122  School  Adjustment 

ing  and  general  organization.  Definitized  immediate  objectives 
are  set  up  for  individual  pupils  as  a  result  of  careful  analysis 
of  the  conditions  surrounding  each  case.  These  specific  aims 
are  achieved  through  general  and  special  modifications  in  the 
work  of  the  school.  Thus  by  the  introduction  of  various  types 
of  special  ungraded  classes,  by  permitting  varying  rates  of 
progress,  by  selection  and  emphasis  in  courses  of  study,  by 
determination  of  differentiated  minima  and  by  affording  oppor- 
tunity for  pre-vocational  work,  a  flexibility  is  developed  in  the 
organization,  and  the  adjustment  of  the  school  to  varying  indi- 
vidual capacities  and  needs  is  facilitated. 


CHAPTER  VII 

REORGANIZATION    ON    THE    BASIS    OF    IMPROVED 
STANDARD  CONDITIONS 

The  adjustments  indicated  in  the  previous  chapter,  it  will  be 
remembered,  have  been  recommended  on  a  basis  of  existing 
standard  conditions  as  to  plant,  equipment,  personnel  and 
fundamental  organization.  These  conditions  have  been  seen 
to  limit  the  fullest  realization  of  the  aim  of  the  school  in  each 
individual.  If  it  were  possible,  then,  to  bring  about  desired 
improvements  in  the  conditions  surrounding  the  organization 
and  operations  of  the  school,  many  of  the  modifications  cited 
above  might  be  carried  to  fruition  with  greater  effect  and  some 
further  departures  in  line  with  the  principles  of  efficiency  might 
be  inaugurated.  To  this  end  it  will  be  necessary  to  outline 
in  greater  detail,  as  far  as  is  practicable,  the  chief  condition 
limiting  the  present  operation  of  the  school,  i.  e.,  financial. 

Current  Expenses  for  Stanton-Arthur  School 

It  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  an  exact  determination  of  the 
expenses  and  other  payments  for  a  particular  school  in  a  large 
city  system,  because  of  the  fact  that  certain  im.portant  items  of 
expense  are  general  in  their  nature.  However,  if  these  items 
are  apportioned  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  pupils  in  average 
daily  attendance,  they  will  yield  an  approximation  sufficiently 
accurate  for  our  purpose  (see  p.  126,  Table  XXXVIII).  For 
example,  under  expenses  of  general  control,  the  total  of  $383,973 
expended  during  the  year  1918  divided  by  the  total  number  of 
pupils  in  average  attendance  in  the  schools  of  the  city  (192,195), 
gives  an  approximate  expenditure  of  $2.00  per  pupil  per  year 
for  this  purpose,  or  $2400  for  the  school.  Wherever  this  pro- 
cedure is  necessary  in  order  to  determine  the  allotment  of  ex- 
penditure to  the  particular  school  in  question,  the  fact  has 
been  indicated  in  the  accompanying  tabular  statement.  Exami- 
nation of  certain  items  of  expenditure  shows  their  inadequacy 
for  securing  highest  efficiency  in  the  work  of  the  school.  It 
will  be  noted  that  the  expense  for  the  twenty-nine  regular 
classes  of  the  school  aggregate  only  $29,672,  a  sum  sufficient  to 

123 


124  School  Adjustment 

provide  an  average  teacher's  salary  of  less  than  $1,000,  since 
the  cost  of  supplies  is  included  in  the  item  mencioned.  It  will 
be  noted  that  the  cost  of  sewing  instruction  amounts  to  only 
$407,  due  to  the  fact  that  a  teacher  was  employed  only  five 
months  of  the  term  and  that  no  instruction  in  sewing  was  offered 
during  the  remaining  five  months.  The  expenses  for  instruc- 
tion in  handwork  covered  only  the  cost  of  materials,  since 
this  instruction  is  given  by  regular  class  teachers.  The  total 
for  current  expenses  for  the  year  ($48,386.86)  is  approximately 
$4,000  in  excess  of  the  sum  arrived  at  by  multiplying  the  cost 
per  pupil  in  elementary  schools  of  the  city  ($37.05)*  by  the 
average  attendance  in  the  Stanton- Arthur  School.  This  excess 
is  explained  partly  by  the  fact  that  the  school  has  a  large  pro- 
portion of  grammar  grades,  for  which  the  cost  of  supplies  and 
teaching  is  greater  than  in  primary  grades. 

School  Budget 

To  the  right  of  the  distribution  of  expenses  for  1918  is  given 
a  proposed  budget  of  expenditure  for  1921.  It  will  be  noted 
that  all  items  are  materially  increased,  and  that  in  the  aggre- 
gate, the  recommended  expenditure  of  $96,650  is  100%  in  ex- 
cess of  the  expenses  for  1918.  Such  increases  might  appear 
unwarranted,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  budget  must 
consider  the  general  rise  in  price  of  all  commodities,  a  com- 
mensurate rise  in  teachers'  salaries,  certain  necessary  additions 
to  the  teaching  and  supervisory  force  of  the  school,  and  cer- 
tain increases  due  to  the  maintenance  and  operation  of  the 
proposed  new  school  plant.  This  increase  in  annual  expendi- 
ture, while  double  the  50%  increase  recommended  on  a  basis 
of  the  comparative  study  of  expenditure  in  Philadelphia  and 
other  cities  (p.  37)  is  seen  to  be  small  when  compared  with 
constantly  increasing  costs. 

Physical  Conditions 

Although  the  present  Arthur  building  is  inadequate  in  many 
ways,  it  is  recommended  that  this  building  be  continued  in  use  as 
at  present,  since  it  does  not  seem  practicable  to  introduce  on  any 
extensive  scale,  facilities  for  special  activity.  The  eight  classes 
of  grades  one  to  three,  the  two  kindergartens,  and  the  class  for 

*  Report  of  Board  of  Education— 1918,  p.  208. 


Reorganization  125 

mental  defectives  can  be  assigned  each  to  a  separate  room 
and  the  programs  of  the  four  classes  of  grades  4  and  5  and 
the  one  special  class  for  extreme  over-age  pupils,  can  be  so 
arranged  that  these  pupils  may  participate  to  a  limited  degree, 
in  the  manual  arts  and  auditorium  activities  to  be  afforded  in 
the  proposed  new  Stanton  building.  All  classes  may  avail 
themselves  of  the  opportunity  for  outdoor  games  afforded  by 
the  McCoach  Recreation  grounds,  two  blocks  distant  from 
the  school. 

However,  there  are  certain  improvements  that  should  be 
immediately  effected  in  the  Arthur  building.  These  have  been 
provided  for  in  the  budget  covering  outlays  for  the  coming 
year.  Since  the  school  yard  affords  less  than  ten  square  feet  of 
space  per  child  in  average  attendance,  it  is  important  that 
yard  space  be  increased.  This  would  require  the  purchase  and 
razing  of  two  adjoining  houses,  at  an  approximate  cost  of  $20,- 
000.  This  sum  is  included  in  the  $50,000  item  for  land  out- 
lays. 

Certain  alterations  are  necessary  in  order  to  make  the  plant 
safe  and  sanitary.  The  wooden  stair  treads  in  the  fire  escape 
should  be  replaced  by  fire-proof  materials;  hallways  should  be 
adequately  lighted,  and  the  present  unsanitary  and  inadequate 
toilet  facilities  entirely  removed  and  replaced.  These  altera- 
tions would  require  approximately  $10,000. 

Additional  equipment  to  the  Arthur  building,  especially  for 
the  special  ungraded  classes  and  to  provide  movable  furniture 
for  at  least  the  first-grade  rooms,  would  require  an  additional 
JflOOO. 

Stanton  Building 

Although  erected  seventy  years  ago,  the  walls  of  the  Stanton 
building  are  still  in  good  condition,  but  any  rearrangement  of 
the  rooms  to  provide  necessary  hall  space,  wardrobes,  proper 
light  and  ventilation,  requires  that  only  twelve  rooms  be  pro- 
vided. Such  remodeling  of  the  building  would  require  the  erec- 
tion of  additional  rooms  for  either  regular  or  special  activities. 
It  would  appear  desirable,  therefore,  that  the  Stanton  building 
be  remodeled  as  indicated,  and  that  the  necessary  additional 
space  be  provided  in  <the  form  of  facilities  for  special  activity. 
The   cost  of  such  remodeling  and  additions,   however,   is  so 


Table  XXXVIII 

Disbursements — Year  ending  December  31,  1918  Proposed  Budget- 

Stanion-Arthur  School  1921 


Expenses  (cost  of  conducting  the  school): 

a.  Expenses    of     General     Control     (Overhead 

Charges)* $2,400.00 

b.  Expenses  of  Instruction  by  Activities: 


Salaries  of  Supervisors  of  Grades 

and  Sub.* $420.00 

Office 3,666.83 

Regular  classes  (29) 29,672.48 

Kindergarten  (2) 1,635.51 

Sewing  (5  months  only) 407.23 

Handwork  (supplies  only) 68.77 

Special  classes  (2) 2,434.23 


Total 38,305.05 


Expenses  of  Operation — School  Plant: 

1.  Fuel* 1,900.00 

2.  Janitors'  Salary  and  Supplies. . .  .   2,885.19 


Total 4,785.19 


,  Expenses  of  Maintenance — School  Plant: 

1.  Repair  of  Buildings 95.93 

2.  Repairs     and     Replacement     of 

Equipment 620.69 

3.  Insurance* 500.00 

4.  Other  Expenses  of  Maintenance*.        60.00 


Total 

1 .276.62 

e.   Expenses  of  Auxiliary  Agencies: 
1 .  Promotion  of  Health 

.    1,200.00 

Total     

1.200  00 

f.    Miscellaneous  Expenses 

420.00 

Total  

4':'n  00 

Total  Expenses $48,386.86 


$3,000.00 


$  550.00 
7,500.00 

60,000.00 
2,300.00 
1,800.00 
1,800.00 
8,000.00 


81,950.00 


3,500.00 
4,000.00 


7,500.00 


200.00 

1,000.00 
600.00 
100.00 


1,900.00 


1,800.00 


1,800.00 


300.00 


500.00 


$96,650.00 


11 


.  Outlays  (Capital  acquisition  and  construction) : 

a.  Land 

b.  New  building 

c.  Alterations  to  Old  Building  (Arthur) 

d.  Equipment  of  New  Building  and  Ground 

e.  Equipment  of  Old  Building  (exclusive  of  replacements) 

Total 


$50,000.00 

350,000.00 

10,000.00 

25,000.00 

1,000.00 


436,000.00 


111. 
a. 
b. 


Other  Payments: 

Temporary  loan  and  interests 

Debt  and  interest  on  debt  under 
School  Code,  May  18,  1911 

Payments  to  School  District  Sinking 
Fund 

Payments  of  interest  on  debt  cre- 
ated since  May  18,  1911 

Miscellaneous  payments  including 
payments  to  trust  funds 


Total* 20,800.00 


25,000.00 


Grand  Total $69,186.: 


$557,650.00 


*  The  distribution  of  these  items  and  the  allotment  of  the  stated  sums  to  the  ex- 
pense account  of  the  Stanton-Arthur  School  is  based  on  average  attendance. 


Reorganization 


127 


great  as  to  suggest  the  advisability  of  replacing  the  Stanton 
building  by  an  entirely  new  and  modern  school  plant.  As 
indicated  in  the  accompanying  Table  (XXXIX),  this  plant 
should  include  eleven  regular  classrooms,  two  ungraded  class- 
rooms, and  ten  other  rooms  to  provide  for  the  various  forms  of 
special  activity.  The  precise  determination  of  building  plans 
is  contingent  upon  the  aim  of  the  school  and  the  curriculum  and 
organization  determined  upon  to  effect  that  aim.  Consequently, 
the  need  of  a  building  with  facilities  as  outlined  can  be  appreci- 
ated only  in  the  light  of  the  ideal  aim  of  the  school,  the  activi- 
ties through  which  this  aim  is  to  be  realized,  and  the  type  of 
organization  through  which  such  realization  can  be  most  effi- 
ciently and  economically  brought  about. 

Table  XXXIX 

Outline  of  School  Plant,  Activities,  Class  Organization  and  Teaching  Force 

Arthur  Building 

Rooms  Activity  Classes  Teachers 

12  Regular  instruction  12  11 

2  Special  Classes  2  2 

1  Kindergarten  2  2 


15 


Rooms 
3 
8 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

24 

Total 

39 


Proposed  New  Stanton  Building 

Activity 
Grades  1,  2,  3 
Regular  instruction 
Opportunity  Classes 
Music 
Drawing 
Play 

Auditorium 

Cooking-household  Arts 
Manual  Training 
Boys'  Vocational 
Girls'  Vocational 
Sewing 
Manual  Arts 
Lunch* 


16 

Classes 
3 
8 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 

22 
38 


15 

Teachers 
3 

lit 
2 
1 
1 

2 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


26 
41 


*  Lunch  room  managed  by  teacher  of  cooking  with  aid  of  pupils. 
t  Includes  auditorium  assignments. 

In  any  event,  a  modern  school  building  should  meet  stand- 
ards of  safety,  health,  education,  economy  and  happiness.  The 
safety  and  health  of  school  children  is  a  public  trust.     The 


128  School  Adjustment 

building  must  be  erected  to  meet  the  varying  needs  of  children, 
as  well  as  the  insistent  demands  of  modern  society.  It  should 
provide  for  play  as  a  necessary  activity  of  growth,  and  should 
contemplate  the  health  and  happiness  of  the  community  as 
well  as  the  child.  Finally,  economy  in  construction  should  be 
judged  by  costs  in  relation  to  ultimate  return. 

A  building  providing  the  facilities  outlined  in  Table  XXXIX, 
and  containing  eleven  regular  classrooms,  two  ungraded  rooms 
and  ten  rooms  for  special  activity,  would  cost  approximately 
$350,000. 

Such  a  building  would  require  additional  ground  space  which 
can  be  secured  only  through  the  purchase  of  adjoining  houses. 
For  this  purpose  there  has  been  included  in  the  budget  the 
sum  of  $30,000. 

The  modern  equipment  of  the  building  including  auditorium, 
play  room,  manual  arts  rooms,  laboratories,  music  room,  etc., 
would  require  approximately  $25,000. 

Curriculum 

It  has  been  seen  that  in  order  to  effect  the  fullest  possible 
realization  of  the  ideal  aim  of  the  school,  it  is  necessary  to  offer 
an  enriched  curriculum.  The  desirability  and  importance  of 
affording  a  diversity  of  educational  opportunity  to  meet  vary- 
ing individual  needs  has  been  indicated  repeatedly  in  the  fore- 
going discussion.  The  school  should  not  only  supply  facilities 
for  study  in  well-appointed  classrooms  under  wholesome  con- 
ditions, but  it  must  afford  to  all  children  the  opportunity  for 
the  healthful  work  and  play  which  the  home  is  no  longer  able  to 
supply.  Good  workmanship,  resourcefulness  in  solving  prac- 
tical problems,  and  the  ability  to  create  useful  things  should  be 
developed.  Besides  this  development  of  mechanical  ability  and 
initiative,  the  school  should  foster  a  wholesome  social  life,  and, 
through  play  and  recreation,  a  happy  optimistic  outlook  based 
upon  ample  reserve  of  vital  energy.  Proper  emphasis  on  health, 
socialized  activity  of  every  sort,  the  practical  usefulness  of 
every  item  of  knowledge  or  skill  and  its  concrete  application, 
will  secure  important  physical,  mental,  social  and  moral  gains. 
Successful  cooperative  achievement  will  characterize  the  work 
of  the  school  and  it  will  not  be  long  before  the  influence  of  its 
ideals  will  be  felt  in  the  community. 


Reorganization  129 

The  curriculum  of  grades  one  to  six  should  retain  much  of  its 
emphasis  on  the  inculcation  of  fundamental  habits  and  atti- 
tudes, though  with  added  stress  on  the  application  of  all  of  these 
to  concrete  life  situations.  The  first  half  of  this  period  covers 
the  stage  of  preparation  for  serious  school  work.  Here  the 
pupil  is  introduced  to  the  tools  of  learning — reading,  writing, 
number,  oral  English,  music,  drawing  and  simple  handwork. 

In  grades  four  to  six  it  is  important  to  continue  the  work  in 
the  fundamental  tool  subjects,  though  relatively  more  time 
should  be  devoted  here  to  the  basic  subjects  of  richer  content. 
In  the  early  grades  of  this  period,  the  study  of  biography  should 
afford  a  fitting  approach  to  the  later  and  more  systematic  study 
of  history.  The  study  of  civics  should  develop  a  keen  apprecia- 
tion of  the  place  of  each  pupil  as  an  individual  in  the  com- 
munity, beginning  with  the  class  community,  and  extending 
out  to  the  city,  and  finally  the  nation.  By  the  end  of  this 
period,  the  pupils  should  have  made  an  elementary  survey  of 
the  world  and  its  people,  and  should  have  some  appreciation  of 
the  inter-dependence  of  man  and  of  his  relations  with  the  phys- 
ical environment.  A  body  of  health  information,  the  estab- 
lishment of  health  habits  and  training  in  physical  education 
and  play  should  lay  the  foundation  for  sound  vitality.  In 
addition,  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  wise  employment 
of  leisure,  through  instruction  in  music,  art  and  hterature,  as 
well  as  through  the  varied  activities  made  possible  by  the  use 
of  a  well-appointed  auditorium.  Further  than  this,  and  es- 
pecially in  view  of  the  fact  that  so  many  pupils  of  these  grades 
are  of  relatively  advanced  age,  it  is  important  that  practical 
activities  connected  with  home  economics  and  manual  training 
be  afforded.  Instruction  in  drawing,  manual  arts,  manual  train- 
ing, and  in  special  cases,  pre-vocational  work,  should  afford  to 
boys  a  familiarity  with  the  common  tools  and  some  readiness 
in  their  use,  together  with  a  consideration  of  the  various  indus- 
tries, their  demands  and  opportunities.  Instruction  in  sewing, 
cooking,  and  in  special  cases,  pre-vocational  work,  should  af- 
ford to  girls  the  ability  to  do  plain  sewing,  through  the  making 
of  useful  articles,  practice  in  the  cooking  of  simple,  wholesome 
foods  and  in  habits  of  neatness  in  the  care  of  the  home.  Through- 
out the  work  of  these  grades,  the  primary  aim  should  be  the 
acquisition  of  a  learning  technique,  and  the  formation  of  cor- 


130  School  Adjustment 

rect  habits  through  repetition  and  drill.  However,  the  develop- 
ment of  proper  attitudes,  and  the  important  moral  significance 
of  a  close  connection  and  interrelation  of  school  with  life  ac- 
tivities mu3t  not  be  disregarded. 

In  grades  seven  and  eight,  it  is  important  to  recognize  the 
stage  of  physiological  maturity  of  the  pupils,  and  to  adjust 
courses  and  method  to  individual  differences,  which  assert 
themsehes  in  the  adolescent  period.  Here  should  be  made  a 
brief  survey  of  the  departments  of  human  knowledge  repre- 
sented in  general  courses  in  literature,  mathematics,  history  and 
science.  The  demands  of  this  period  for  change,  variety  and 
human  interest,  rather  than  for  completeness  and  logical  ar- 
rangement, should  be  recognized,  and  an  opportunity  given  for 
the  determination  of  individual  aptitudes  and  interests.  The 
work  of  these  grades  should  furnish  educational  guidance  of 
such  a  nature  as  to  insure  thorough  mastery  of  certain  minimum 
essentials  and  at  the  same  time  to  open  up  the  broader  fields  of 
human  knowledge  and  experience  and  to  give  pre -vocational 
training  followed  by  placement  and  follow-up  work  where  this 
is  made  necessary  by  early  withdrawal  from  school.  The 
social  environment  of  these  grades  should  develop  actual  situa- 
tions calling  for  actual  responses  from  the  pupils  who  then 
truly  would  learn  to  do  by  doing  now.  The  school,  therefore, 
should  offer  a  course  of  study  featuring  certain  constant  subjects 
as  English,  mathematics,  science,  history,  civics  and  physical 
education  to  be  taken  by  all  pupils,  and  should  permit  advised 
selection  from  a  limited  number  of  variable  courses. 

The  constants  are  determined  largely  by  the  general  course 
of  study  provided  for  the  entire  school  system,  though  this 
does  not  preclude  the  possibility  of  varied  emphasis  on  a  basis 
of  community  and  individual  needs.  It  is  important  that  these 
basic  courses  be  related  to  the  practical  and  socialized  activities 
of  the  shops,  kitchen,  auditorium  and  play  room,  that  the 
fundamental  concepts  may  be  made  definite  and  sure.  It  is 
important,  further,  at  least  in  grade  seven,  that  the  variable 
courses  be  so  arranged  that  easy  transfer  may  be  effected  from 
one  course  to  another  without  great  loss  of  time  or  continuity 
of  the  work  of  the  individual  pupil  concerned.  Throughout 
these  grades  the  time  spent  in  elective  work,  while  ample  to 
give  practical  and  usable  returns,  should  not  be  so  great  as  to 


Reo7  ganization  131 

encroach  upon  the  time  necessary  to  the  successful  teaching 
of  the  fundamental  or  constant  subjects,  or  to  preclude  the 
possibility  of  future  specialization.  Pupils  completing  any  one 
of  the  elective  courses  (except  the  vocational)  must  not  find 
their  opportunities  restricted  in  any  way  on  entering  high 
school  work  or  on  their  transfer  to  any  other  school  of  the  city 
system.  Such  considerations  have  had  their  effect  on  the 
arrangement  of  the  program  of  the  school  which  provides  in 
every  course  at  least  four  daily  periods  in  the  fundamental 
subjects. 

In  conjunction  with  these  constant  subjects,  it  i^  desirable 
to  offer  elective  courses  suited  to  the  needs  and  interests  of 
varying  individuals.     These  will  fall  into  four  main  groups: 

(1)  Special  academic  subjects — word  study,  foreign  language, 
general  history  and  literature. 

(2)  Commercial  subjects — bookkeeping,  spelling,  commercial 
arithmetic,  geography  and  penmanship. 

(3)  a.  Practical    arts   for   boys — shopwork,   shop   arithmetic 

and  mechanical  drawing, 
b.  Household  arts  for  girls — cooking,  sewing,  home  dec- 
oration and  design. 

(4)  Courses  providing  specific  vocational  instruction  to  small, 
selected  groups  of  boys  and  girls  about  to  leave  school. 

The  fourth  of  these  courses  has  no  place  in  a  theoretic  arrange- 
ment of  instruction  materials  for  the  grades  concerned.  Il  is 
suggested  here  solely  as  a  means  of  holding  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  school,  pupils  who  otherwise  would  leave  the  school 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  grade.  It  may  be  possible 
in  a  limited  number  of  cases  to  hold  such  pupils  in  school  for 
a  time  by  offering  instruction  in  specific  vocational  processes. 
In  every  case,  however,  these  courses  would  have  a  background 
in  related  academic  work.  Thus  would  be  secured  to  these 
pupils  not  only  a  broader  conception  of  industrial  opportunities, 
but  a  more  complete  foundation  on  which  to  base  future  speciali- 
zation. The  specific  courses  could  be  arranged  in  short  ten- 
week  units  to  secure  intensive  work  and  also  to  insure  the 
attendance  of  each  pupil  until  the  completion  of  the  course. 
For  girls,  a  short  course  in  practical  home -making  might  in- 
clude dietetics,  marketing,  cooking,  cleaning,  home  accounts, 
kitchen  economy.     Another  course  following  this  could  empha- 


132  School  Adjustment 

size  practical  home  decoration,  sanitation,  the  care  of  children. 
A  third  course  might  comprise  textiles,  garment-making,  ma- 
chine sewing,  millinery  or  design.  For  boys,  corresponding 
courses  in  the  mechanic  arts  might  afford  intensive  preliminary 
training  in  printing,  shop  practice,  automobile  repair,  carpentry 
and  janitorial  work. 

Organization 

Efficiency  and  economy  demand  that  school  costs  be  kept  as 
low  as  possible  to  secure  the  greatest  ultimate  return  in  com- 
plete Hving  and  well-rounded  citizenship.  Social  conditions 
demand  that  the  school  train  the  hand  as  well  as  the  head,  that 
it  introduce  socialized  activities,  that  it  develop  sound,  healthy 
bodies,  that  it  encourage  a  spirit  of  scientific  experiment,  and 
that  it  provide  facifities  for  practical  application.  To  offer 
all  these  types  of  education  requires  specially  equipped  rooms 
for  the  so-called  special  subjects  and  activities  in  addition  to 
regular  classrooms.  Since  it  is  manifestly  wasteful  to  provide 
rooms  and  equipment  for  a  variety  of  specialized  activities 
when  such  facilities  are  to  be  used  only  a  small  part  of  the  day, 
it  is  necessary  to  make  a  corresponding  reduction  in  the  num- 
ber of  regular  classrooms  and  to  keep  all  facilities  in  use  through- 
out the  entire  school  day.  The  platoon  or  duplicate  school 
plan  has  passed  the  stage  of  experiment,  and  has  proven  its 
worth  as  a  means  of  broadening  and  enriching  the  content  of 
the  curriculum,  of  ensuring  the  essential  connection  of  school 
work  with  life  activities,  and  of  securing  economy  through  the 
multiple  use  of  all  facilities. 

Arthur  School 

Considering  the  separation  of  the  StantonArthur  School  into 
two  buildings,  and  the  fact  that  a  large  part  of  the  Arthur 
building  is  occupied  by  pupils  of  grades  one  to  three,  it  does 
not  seem  advisable  to  introduce  the  duplicate  plan  into  the 
Arthur  building.  The  eight  classes  of  grades  one  to  three, 
the  two  kindergartens  and  the  orthogenic  backward  class 
should  be  assigned  each  to  a  separate  room,  as  at  present, 
thus  occupying  ten  of  the  fifteen  classrooms.  Pupils  in  the 
regular  classes  of  these  grades  would  be  grouped  according  to 
ability,  ana  permitted  to  advance  at  rates  suited  to  their  de- 


Reorganization  133 

veloping  capacities.  Finer  division  of  each  class  group  into 
two  or  three  sub-groups  would  permit  still  closer  adjustment 
of  the  work  to  individual  needs.  Finally,  the  allotment  of  a 
given  period  on  the  daily  program  to  be  devoted  to  individual 
instruction  would  insure  effective  work  on  the  part  of  those 
pupils  who  had  not  developed  sufficiently  difTerent  needs  to 
warrant  their  placement  in  one  of  the  three  special  ungraded 
classes  (one  in  Stanton  building). 

The  use  of  small  tables  and  chairs  in  first  grade  classes  will 
permit  the  introduction  of  kindergarten  methods  to  the  extent 
that  this  is  desirable.  Dramatization,  games  and  socialized 
activities  of  every  sort  conducive  to  the  freedom  necessary  for 
spontaneity  will  relieve  the  present  stilted  formality  of  many 
first-grade  activities.  Movable  furniture  will  also  encourage 
the  formation  of  small,  homogeneous  groups  within  the  class 
for  cooperative  work,  as  well  as  for  instruction  suited  to  indi- 
vidual needs. 

The  four  classes  of  grades  four  and  five  accommodated  in  this 
building  can  be  assigned  for  two  sessions  each  week  to  the 
Stanton  building  for  special  activities,  including  manual  train- 
ing, domestic  arts,  auditorium  and  play.  By  similar  arrange- 
ment, the  pupils  of  the  ungraded  adjustment  class  may  spend 
two  sessions  in  the  Stanton  building.  Thus,  at  the  Arthur 
School,  there  would  be  relieved  one  teacher  who  might  devote 
her  entire  time  to  individual  instruction,  to  social  work,  or 
w^ho  might  be  assigned  to  the  Stanton  building. 

Stanton  School 

Because  the  Stanton  is  the  only  school  within  a 
large  radius  that  accommodates  white  pupils  as  well  as 
colored,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  one  class  each  of  grades 
one  to  three,  and  thus  in  a  measure  to  parallel  the  work  of  the 
Arthur  School.  These  three  classes  would  each  occupy  a  sep- 
arate room,  though  they  would  have  occasional  assignments 
for  such  special  activities  as  auditorium  and  play.  This  is 
also  true  of  the  ungraded  opportunity  class  for  grades  one  to 
three.  The  programs  for  these  classes  as  well  as  all  others  in 
the  Stanton  building  may  be  seen  in  Table  XL.  The  desir- 
ability of  offering  an  enriched  and  diversified  curriculum,  of 
retaining  children  longer  each  day  under  the  direct  influence 


134 


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136  School  Adjustment 

of  the  school,  and  of  providing  wholesome  luncheons,  suggests 
an  extension  of  the  school  day.  The  Stanton  School  is  there- 
fore organized  on  a  nine-period  (45-minute)  day,  comprised 
in  general  of  four  periods  of  academic  work,  two  periods  of 
manual  arts,  one  auditorium,  one  play  and  one  lunch  period. 
This  longer  school  day  is  realized  with  only  a  fifteen-minute 
extension  of  the  present  day,  by  retaining  pupils  over  the  lunch 
period,  thus  avoiding  a  long  unsupervised  recess  in  which  chil- 
dren must  walk,  many  of  them  long  distances,  to  homes  from 
which  parents  are  absent  at  work. 

Table  XL  gives  the  general  plan  of  activities,  showing  utiliza- 
tion of  plant  as  well  as  the  assignment?  of  pupils  and  teachers. 
It  is  hoped  that  this  table  with  its  accompanying  notes  will 
be  self-explanatory.*  However,  certain  important  advantages 
of  the  scheme  of  organization  do  not  appear  in  the  table.  Where 
there  are  two  or  three  teachers  in  a  given  subject,  the  program 
may  be  so  organized  as  to  have  instruction  in  the  same  sub- 
ject given  to  classes  of  succeeding  grades  at  the  same  period 
though  in  different  rooms.  It  will  then  be  possible,  in  a  given 
subject,  for  any  pupil  to  take  work  with  a  class  above  or  below 
his  general  grade  standard.  Thus  the  advantages  of  individual 
roster,  special  pupil  assignments,  promotion  by  subject  and 
flexible  grading  may  be  secured  to  the  end  of  adjusting  the 
work  of  the  school  to  individual  needs. 

The  larger  adjustments  are  provided  for  in  the  ungraded  and 
special  classes  indicated  in  the  outline  of  the  work  of  the  school 
(Table  XL). 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  faciUties  proposed  for  the  new  Stan- 
ton building  have  been  determined  by  the  curriculum  and 
types  of  activity  to  be  offered  and  by  the  form  of  organization 
of  the  school. 

Supervision 

A  school  organization  which  seeks  to  make  teaching  vital 
must  develop  rather  than  direct  its  teachers.  Only  by  sugges- 
tion, inspiration,  the  fixing  of  ideals  and  standards,  can  re- 
sponsibility be  exacted  in  terms  of  real  capacities  developed  in 
the  children.     The  careful  study  of  individual  pupils,  the  diag- 

*  For  details  of  program  construction  from  such  data,  see  "Organization 
of  Classes  in  Holmes  Junior  High  School" — Sondberg,  D.,  Current  Education 
—June,  1919. 


Reorganization  137 

nosis  of  defects  and  the  determination  of  causes  and  remedies 
can  be  brought  about  only  through  detailed,  sympathetic  super- 
vision. It  is  impossible  for  this  type  of  professional  stimulation 
and  guidance  to  be  afforded  in  so  large  and  diversified  a  school 
organization  by  one  supervisory  officer  whose  major  attention 
must  of  necessity  be  directed  to  administrative  duties.  Con- 
sequently, in  order  to  insure  an  upbuilding  constructive  organi- 
zation, it  is  recommended  that  the  school  principal  be  pro- 
vided with  an  assistant  whose  entire  time  shall  be  devoted  to 
the  professional  supervision  of  grades  one  to  six.  Thus  would 
be  reserved  to  the  school  principal,  in  addition  to  his  adminis- 
trative duties,  the  special  province  of  the  professional  super- 
vision of  the  higher  grades.  Provision  is  made  in  the  budget 
for  the  salary  of  this  assistant  supervisor. 

Personnel 

The  suggested  organization  of  the  school  as  indicated  in 
Table  XL  would  require  forty-one  teachers,  two  for  kinder- 
gartens, Lwenty-five  for  regular  classes,  four  for  special  classes, 
and  ten  for  special  subjects  and  activities,  including  music, 
drawing,  manual  and  household  arts,  auditorium  and  play. 
This  total  represents  an  increase  of  six  over  the  present  num- 
ber of  teachers,*  due  to  the  addition  of  two  special  ungraded 
classes  and  the  introduction  of  a  vocational  class  and  a  wide 
range  of  special  activities  in  which  a  separate  teacher  is  required 
for  each  half  of  a  given  regular  class. 

As  to  the  race  of  the  teachers,  it  seems  wise  that  the  present 
arrangement  be  continued.  Because  of  the  large  proportion  of 
negro  pupils  in  the  school,  the  entire  Arthur  building  may  be 
devoted  to  them  in  grades  1  to  5.  Here  negro  teachers  should 
be  employed.  In  the  Stanton  building  there  will  then  be  about 
an  equal  proportion  of  white  and  negro  pupils.  Here  white 
teachers  should  be  retained  not  solely  because  of  the  presence 
of  white  pupils,  but  for  the  more  important  reason  that,  since 
negroes  must  live  and  work  with  white  people,  "they  should 
have  the  benefit  of  instruction  from  representatives  of  the  white 
group  at  some  point  in  their  school  life."* 

*  See  Table  XI,  P.  44,  34  teachers  and  1  sewing  teacher. 

*  Negro  Education— U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education— Bulletin  1916,  No.  38, 
p.  4. 


138  School  Adjustment 

It  will  be  noted  in  the  budget  for  1921  that  provision  has 
been  made  not  only  for  salaries  and  supphes  for  the  additional 
teachers  and  activities,  but  also  for  a  material  increase  in  the  sal- 
aries of  all  teachers.  Of  first  importance  in  increasing  the  efficien- 
cy of  the  school  is  this  provision  for  increased  financial  reward 
in  order  to  secure  not  only  the  highest  type  of  teaching  ability, 
but  also  the  broadest,  most  sympathetic  insight  into  the  pe- 
culiar problems  of  individual  pupils,  their  homes  and  their 
community  surroundings.  Teachers  for  the  school  should  be 
selected  with  these  ideals  in  mind  and  only  those  who  have 
some  understanding  of  the  peculiar  problems  of  the  school  and 
who  show  a  desire  to  enter  whole-heartedly  into  the  work  should 
be  admitted  to  the  teaching  corps.  Carefully  selected  teachers, 
securing  increased  remuneration  for  their  special  efficiencies, 
could  be  retained  in  the  service  and  encouraged  to  progress 
with  their  problems  by  an  additional  efficiency  reward  for 
eminent  success.  Thus  there  would  be  secured  to  the  school 
a  corps  of  efficient  teachers  with  a  thorough  understanding 
and  appreciation  of  the  fundamental  aims  of  the  school  and 
the  part  played  by  each  school  activity  in  the  realization  of 
these  aims.  There  would  result  a  scientific  spirit  of  investiga- 
tion, a  desire  to  experiment  with  new  procedures  to  the  end 
of  securing  continuous  improvement,  and  an  esprit  de  corps 
such  as  can  only  be  fully  developed  on  principles  of  fair  deal 
and  efficiency  reward. 

A  Community  School 

With  the  plant,  organization,  curriculum  and  personnel  out- 
lined above,  the  school  could  not  fail  to  radiate  its  influence 
out  into  the  community.  But  in  order  to  insure  the  fullest 
functioning  of  the  school  it  is  important  that  constructive 
effort  be  employed  to  encourage  full  community  cooperation 
and  understanding. 

In  view  of  the  nature  of  the  problem  of  attendance  in  the 
school  and  because  of  the  need  of  direct  contact  with  indi- 
vidual homes,  it  is  recommended  that  the  compulsory  attend- 
ance officer  who  serves  this  school  as  only  part  of  a  much  larger 
field  of  work,  be  replaced  by  a  visiting  teacher  who  could  devote 
her  entire  time  to  individual  work  on  the  problem  of  school 
and  community  relationship.     It  is  desirable  that  this  officer 


Reorganization  139 

possess  the  highest  qualifications  as  both  teacher  and  social 
worker,  and  that  she  be  in  entire  sympathy  with  the  general 
problem  presented.  /  Her  specific  duties  would  include  investi- 
gation and  elimination  of  unnecessary  non-attendance,  im- 
provement of  sanitary  and  general  health  conditions  in  homes 
and  community,  detailed  follow-up  work  on  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  school  physician  and  nurse  as  to  the  correction  of 
physical  defects,  and  the  wise  placement  of  pupils  leaving  school 
for  work.  She  would  act  as  intermediary  between  the  com- 
munity and  the  school,  carrying  the  ideals  of  the  school  directly 
to  the  community,  and  fostering  a  constructive  cooperation  of 
social  and  civic  organizations,  as  well  as  keeping  the  school  in 
close  touch  with  the  currents  of  life  in  the  community. 

Having  changed  the  kind  of  experiences  that  are  given  and 
individualized  the  school  to  the  point  of  approaching  a  solution 
of  community  problems,  the  school  must  be  given  over  to  the 
people.  It  is  false  economy  to  restrict  the  use  of  a  modern 
building  to  children  for  only  twenty-five  or  thirty  hours  a  week 
for  ten  months  in  a  year.  The  new  Stanton  building  should 
be  so  planned  that  auditorium,  cooking,  sewing,  manual  arts, 
music  and  playrooms  are  in  the  first  floor  and  basement  for 
easy  access  and  use  by  the  community  in  the  evenings.  Oppor- 
tunities should  be  afforded  for  evening  instruction  as  well  as 
for  recreation,  play  and  social  and  civic  gatherings.  Further- 
more, children  need  direction  and  guidance  during  the  summer 
months  as  well  as  at  other  times  in  the  year,  and  this  should 
be  provided  in  a  so-called  'Vacation'  school. 
^  The  modern  school  in  the  fullness  of  its  functioning  has  been 
variously  termed  'Vitalized'*  and  'Magnified.'!  "The  decline 
of  the  influence  of  the  family,  of  the  church,  of  the  workshop, 
and  of  the  major  Nationalizing  Traditions  has  meant  the  in- 
crease of  the  domain  of  the  school.  And  as  the  school  extends 
Vthe  frontier  of  education,  thereby  enlarging  its  service  to  the 
common  good,  it  will  of  necessity  turn  its  attention  inward 
and  utilize  the  external  good  for  its  internal  improvement."! 
It  is  in  this  reciprocal  influence  of  the  school  and  the  community 
that  rest  the  hopes  of  Democracy.     In  the  community  we  have 

*  Pearson — The  Vitalized  School, 
t  Ward,  E.  J.— The  Social  Center. 
t  Ward,  E.  J.  op.  cit. 


140  School  Adjustment 

studied  here,  there  is  peculiar  force  to  the  need  for  a  common 
understanding,  a  unity  of  purpose,  and  a  sympathetic  coopera- 
tion in  working  toward  a  common  goal.  rTTie  school  must 
enter  deeply  into  the  lives  of  the  people  as  well  as  into  the 
lives  of  the  children  in  order  to  become  the  great  democratic 
socializing  agency"  j 

Conclusion 

To  effect  the  many  improvements  made  possible  by  the 
adjustment  of  the  school  to  the  needs  of  its  community  re- 
quires then  a  complete  reorganization,  an  increased  budget  of 
expenditures,  a  new  and  different  type  of  plant,  a  revised, 
enriched  and  diversified  program,  a  differentiated  corps  of 
teachers  fully  compensated  for  their  special  efficiencies,  a  changed 
spirit  in  instruction  and  a  broader  conception  of  service.  All 
these  are  necessary  in  order  that  the  school  may  come  into  its 
own  as  the  prime  exemplar  of  democratic  institutions  within 
the  community,  and  that  the  education  it  affords  may  have 
telling  effect  on  present  social  life  through  the  cooperative 
realization  of  the  highest  ideals. 


Bibliography  141 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

U.  S.  Census  Reports,  1880  to  1910. 

U.  S.  Census  Statistical  Abstract,  1910,  Pennsylvania  Supplement. 

U.  S.  Census,  1910,  Occupations. 

U.  S.  Census  Bureau,  1918,  the  Negro  Population  in  U.  S.  1790,  1915. 

U.  S.  Census  Bureau,  1918,  Financial  Stati.stics  of  Cities. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education— Bulletin  1916,  No.  38— Negro  Education. 

Board  of  Education,  Philadelphia,  Report  1918. 

Bureau  of  Compulsory  Education,  Philadelphia,  Reports  1915-1919. 

Boas,  F.     The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man. 

Galton,  F.     Hereditary  Genius. 

Hall,  G.  S.     The  Negro  in  Africa  and  America.     Ped.  Sem.  ('12),  page  350. 

LeBon,  G.     The  Psychology  of  Peoples. 

WooDWORTH,  R.  S.     Racial  Differences  in  Mental  Traits. 

Ferguson,  G.  O.,  Jr.     The  Psychology  of  the  Negro. 

DuBois,  W.  E.  B.     The  Philadelphia  Negro. 

Souls  of  Black  Folk. 
Washington,  B.  T.     Up  from  Slavery. 

The  Future  of  the  American  Negro. 
Newman,  B.  J.     Housing  the  City  Negro.     (Phila.  Housing  Assn.) 
Miller,  K.     Race  Adjustment. 

Odum,  H.  W.     Social  and  Mental  Traits  of  the  Negro. 
Page,  T.  N.     The  Negro;  the  Southerners'  Problem. 
Noble,  S.  G.     Forty  Years  of  the  Public  Schools  in  Mississippi. 
Smith,  H.  L.     A  Survey  of  a  Public  School  System. 
Dewey,  J.     Democracy  and  Education. 

Schools  of  Tomorrow. 
Betts,  G.  H.     Social  Principles  of  Education. 

YocuM,  A.  D.     Sanity  and  Definiteness  in  Education — Old  Penn,   Novem- 
ber 27,  1915. 

Culture,  Discipline  and  Democracy. 

The  True  Meaning  of  Minimum  Essentials  in  Elementary 
Education.     U.  of  P.  Schoolmen's  Week  Proceedings,  1917. 
Bobbitt,  F.     The  Curriculum. 

Holmes,  W.  H.     School  Organization  and  the  Individual  Child. 
Bunker,  F.  F.     Reorganization  of  the  Public  School  System. 
Douglass,  A.  A.     The  Junior  High  School. 
Bennett,  H.  E.     School  Efficiency. 
Emerson,  H.     The  Twelve  Principles  of  Efficiency. 
Smith,  R.     Elements  of  Industrial  Management. 
Monroe,  W.  S.     Measuring  the  Results  of  Teaching. 
Trabue,  M.  R.     Completion  Test  Language  Scales. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.     Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  April,  1919. 
Engleman,  J.  O.     Moral  Education  in  School  and  Home. 
Anderson,  M.  L.     Education  of  Defectives  in  the  Public  School. 
Patri,  a.     a  School  Master  in  the  Great  City. 
Pearson.     The  Vitalized  School. 
Ward,  E.  J.     The  Social  Center. 
School  Surveys  and  Reports: 

Portland,  Newton,  Salt  Lake  City,  Evansville,  Springfield,  New  Orleans, 
Memphis,  Solvay,  Cleveland,  Gary,  New  York  City,  Boston. 


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